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Anderson RC, Levent G, Petrujkić BT, Harvey RB, Hume ME, He H, Genovese KJ, Beier RC, Poole TL, Crippen TL, Nisbet DJ. Antagonistic Effects of Lipids Against the Anti- Escherichia coli and Anti- Salmonella Activity of Thymol and Thymol-β-d-Glucopyranoside in Porcine Gut and Fecal Cultures In Vitro. Front Vet Sci 2021; 8:751266. [PMID: 34631867 PMCID: PMC8497039 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2021.751266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Strategies are sought to reduce the carriage and dissemination of zoonotic pathogens and antimicrobial-resistant microbes within food-producing animals and their production environment. Thymol (an essential oil) is a potent bactericide in vitro but in vivo efficacy has been inconsistent, largely due to its lipophilicity and absorption, which limits its passage and subsequent availability in the distal gastrointestinal tract. Conjugation of thymol to glucose to form thymol-β-d-glucopyranoside can decrease its absorption, but in vivo passage of effective concentrations to the lower gut remains suboptimal. Considering that contemporary swine diets often contain 5% or more added fat (to increase caloric density and reduce dustiness), we hypothesized that there may be sufficient residual fat in the distal intestinal tract to sequester free or conjugated thymol, thereby limiting the availability and subsequent effectiveness of this biocide. In support of this hypothesis, the anti-Salmonella Typhimurium effects of 6 mM free or conjugated thymol, expressed as log10-fold reductions of colony-forming units (CFU) ml-1, were diminished 90 and 58%, respectively, following 24-h in vitro anaerobic fecal incubation (at 39°C) with 3% added vegetable oil compared to reductions achieved during culture without added oil (6.1 log10 CFU ml-1). The antagonistic effect of vegetable oil and the bactericidal effect of free and conjugated thymol against Escherichia coli K88 tested similarly were diminished 86 and 84%, respectively, compared to reductions achieved in cultures incubated without added vegetable oil (5.7 log10 CFU ml-1). Inclusion of taurine (8 mg/ml), bile acids (0.6 mg/ml), or emulsifiers such as polyoxyethylene-40 stearate (0.2%), Tween 20, or Tween 80 (each at 1%) in the in vitro incubations had little effect on vegetable oil-caused inhibition of free or conjugated thymol. Based on these results, it seems reasonable to suspect that undigested lipid in the distal gut may limit the effectiveness of free or conjugated thymol. Accordingly, additional research is warranted to learn how to overcome obstacles diminishing bactericidal activity of free and conjugated thymol in the lower gastrointestinal tract of food-producing animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin C Anderson
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Gizem Levent
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, College Station, TX, United States.,Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Branko T Petrujkić
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, College Station, TX, United States.,Department of Nutrition and Botany, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Roger B Harvey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Michael E Hume
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Haiqi He
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Kenneth J Genovese
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Ross C Beier
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Toni L Poole
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, College Station, TX, United States
| | - Tawni L Crippen
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, College Station, TX, United States
| | - David J Nisbet
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, College Station, TX, United States
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Levent G, Anderson RC, Petrujkić B, Poole TL, He H, Genovese KJ, Hume ME, Beier RC, Harvey RB, Nisbet DJ. Evaluation of Thymol-β-d-Glucopyranoside as a Potential Prebiotic Intervention to Reduce Carriage of Zoonotic Pathogens in Weaned and Feeder Pigs. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9040860. [PMID: 33923741 PMCID: PMC8073024 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9040860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Revised: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The gut of food-producing animals is a reservoir for foodborne pathogens. Thymol is bactericidal against foodborne pathogens but rapid absorption of thymol from the proximal gut precludes the delivery of effective concentrations to the lower gut where pathogens mainly colonize. Thymol-β-d-glucopyranoside is reported to be more resistant to absorption than thymol in everted jejunal segments and could potentially function as a prebiotic by resisting degradation and absorption in the proximal gut but being hydrolysable by microbial β-glycosidase in the distal gut. Previous in vitro studies showed bactericidal effects of thymol-β-d-glucopyranoside against Campylobacter, Escherichia coli, and Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium in the presence but not absence of intestinal microbes expressing β-glycosidase activity, indicating that hydrolysis was required to obtain antimicrobial activity. Presently, the oral administration of thymol-β-d-glucopyranoside was studied to examine the effects on intestinal carriage of Campylobacter, E. coli, and S. Typhimurium in swine. The effects of thymol-β-d-glucopyranoside or thymol on antimicrobial sensitivity of representative E. coli isolates and characterized Salmonella strains were also explored. Results from two in vivo studies revealed little antimicrobial effects of thymol-β-d-glucopyranoside on Campylobacter, E. coli, or S. Typhimurium in swine gut. These findings add credence to current thinking that hydrolysis and absorption of thymol-β-d-glucopyranoside and thymol may be sufficiently rapid within the proximal gut to preclude delivery to the distal gut. Antibiotic susceptibilities of selected bacterial isolates and strains were mainly unaffected by thymol. Further research is warranted to overcome obstacles, preventing the delivery of efficacious amounts of thymol-β-d-glucopyranoside to the lower gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gizem Levent
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX 77845, USA; (G.L.); (B.P.); (T.L.P.); (H.H.); (K.J.G.); (M.E.H.); (R.C.B.); (R.B.H.); (D.J.N.)
- Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX 77840, USA
| | - Robin C. Anderson
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX 77845, USA; (G.L.); (B.P.); (T.L.P.); (H.H.); (K.J.G.); (M.E.H.); (R.C.B.); (R.B.H.); (D.J.N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-979-260-9317
| | - Branko Petrujkić
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX 77845, USA; (G.L.); (B.P.); (T.L.P.); (H.H.); (K.J.G.); (M.E.H.); (R.C.B.); (R.B.H.); (D.J.N.)
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Belgrade, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Toni L. Poole
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX 77845, USA; (G.L.); (B.P.); (T.L.P.); (H.H.); (K.J.G.); (M.E.H.); (R.C.B.); (R.B.H.); (D.J.N.)
| | - Haiqi He
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX 77845, USA; (G.L.); (B.P.); (T.L.P.); (H.H.); (K.J.G.); (M.E.H.); (R.C.B.); (R.B.H.); (D.J.N.)
| | - Kenneth J. Genovese
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX 77845, USA; (G.L.); (B.P.); (T.L.P.); (H.H.); (K.J.G.); (M.E.H.); (R.C.B.); (R.B.H.); (D.J.N.)
| | - Michael E. Hume
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX 77845, USA; (G.L.); (B.P.); (T.L.P.); (H.H.); (K.J.G.); (M.E.H.); (R.C.B.); (R.B.H.); (D.J.N.)
| | - Ross C. Beier
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX 77845, USA; (G.L.); (B.P.); (T.L.P.); (H.H.); (K.J.G.); (M.E.H.); (R.C.B.); (R.B.H.); (D.J.N.)
| | - Roger B. Harvey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX 77845, USA; (G.L.); (B.P.); (T.L.P.); (H.H.); (K.J.G.); (M.E.H.); (R.C.B.); (R.B.H.); (D.J.N.)
| | - David J. Nisbet
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX 77845, USA; (G.L.); (B.P.); (T.L.P.); (H.H.); (K.J.G.); (M.E.H.); (R.C.B.); (R.B.H.); (D.J.N.)
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Arzola-Alvarez C, Hume ME, Anderson RC, Latham EA, Ruiz-Barrera O, Castillo-Castillo Y, Olivas-Palacios AL, Felix-Portillo M, Armendariz-Rivas RL, Arzola-Rubio A, Ontiveros-Magadan M, Bautista-Martínez Y, Salinas-Chavira J. Influence of sodium chlorate, ferulic acid, and essential oils on Escherichia coli and porcine fecal microbiota. J Anim Sci 2020; 98:5739119. [PMID: 32064520 DOI: 10.1093/jas/skaa059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The influence of sodium chlorate (SC), ferulic acid (FA), and essential oils (EO) was examined on the survivability of two porcine diarrhetic enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) strains (F18 and K88) and populations of porcine fecal bacteria. Fecal bacterial populations were examined by denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis (DGGE) and identification by 16S gene sequencing. The treatments were control (no additives), 10 mM SC, 2.5 mg FA /mL, a 1.5% vol/vol solution of an EO mixture as well as mixtures of EO + SC, EO + FA, and FA + SC at each of the aforementioned concentrations. EO were a commercial blend of oregano oil and cinnamon oil with water and citric acid. Freshly collected porcine feces in half-strength Mueller Hinton broth was inoculated with E. coli F18 (Trial 1) or E. coli K88 (Trial 2). The fecal-E. coli suspensions were transferred to crimp top tubes preloaded with the treatment compounds. Quantitative enumeration was at 0, 6, and 24 h. All treatments reduced (P < 0.05) the counts of E. coli F18 at 6 and 24 h. With the exception of similarity coefficient (%SC), all the other treatments reduced (P < 0.05) the K88 counts at 24 h. The most effective treatments to reduce the F18 and K88 CFU numbers were those containing EO. Results of DGGE revealed that Dice percentage similarity coefficients (%SC) of bacterial profiles among treatment groups varied from 81.3% to 100%SC. The results of gene sequencing showed that, except for SC at 24 h, all the other treatments reduced the counts of the family Enterobacteriaceae, while Lactobacillaceae and Ruminococcaceae increased and Clostridiaceae decreased in all treatments. In conclusion, all treatments were effective in reducing the ETEC, but EO mixture was the most effective. The porcine microbial communities may be influenced by the studied treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Arzola-Alvarez
- Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Ecology, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico
| | - Michael E Hume
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX
| | - Robin C Anderson
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Plains Agricultural Research Center, Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, College Station, TX
| | | | - Oscar Ruiz-Barrera
- Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Ecology, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico
| | - Yamicela Castillo-Castillo
- Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Ecology, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico
| | - Ana Luisa Olivas-Palacios
- Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Ecology, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico
| | - Monserrath Felix-Portillo
- Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Ecology, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico
| | - Ruth L Armendariz-Rivas
- Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Ecology, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Arzola-Rubio
- Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Ecology, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico
| | - Marina Ontiveros-Magadan
- Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Animal Science and Ecology, Universidad Autónoma de Chihuahua, Chihuahua, Mexico
| | - Yuridia Bautista-Martínez
- Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Medicine Veterinary and Animal Science, Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, Tamaulipas, Mexico
| | - Jaime Salinas-Chavira
- Department of Animal Nutrition, College of Medicine Veterinary and Animal Science, Universidad Autónoma de Tamaulipas, Tamaulipas, Mexico
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Van Noten N, Van Liefferinge E, Degroote J, De Smet S, Desmet T, Michiels J. Weaning affects the glycosidase activity towards phenolic glycosides in the gut of piglets. J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl) 2020; 104:1432-1443. [PMID: 32333473 DOI: 10.1111/jpn.13368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2019] [Revised: 03/24/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Phenolic compounds in pig diets, originating either from feed ingredients or additives, may occur as glycosides, that is conjugated to sugar moieties. Upon ingestion, their bioavailability and functionality depend on hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond by endogenous or microbial glycosidases. Hence, it is essential to map the glycosidase activities towards phenolic glycosides present along gut. Therefore, the activity of three key glycosidases, that is α-glucosidase (αGLU), β-glucosidase (βGLU) and β-galactosidase (βGAL), was quantified in small intestinal mucosa and digesta of piglets at different gastrointestinal sites (stomach, three parts of small intestine, caecum and colon) and at different ages around weaning (10 days before and 0, 2, 5, 14 and 28 days after weaning). Activity assays were performed with p-nitrophenyl glycosides at neutral pH. The αGLU activities in mucosa and digesta were low (overall means 1.4 and 60 U respectively) as compared to βGLU (15.2 and 199 U) and βGAL (23.4 and 298 U; p < .001). Moreover, αGLU activity in mucosa was unaffected by age. Conversely, βGLU and βGAL activities dropped significantly after weaning. Minimal levels, ranging between 18% and 54% of the pre-weaning values, were reached at 5 days post-weaning. Similarly, in small intestinal digesta, reductions from 60% up to 90% were observed for the three enzyme activities on day five post-weaning as compared to pre-weaning levels. In caecal contents, activities were lowest at 14 days post-weaning, while in stomach and colon no clear weaning-induced effects were observed. Our data suggest that weaning affects the glycosidase activity in mucosa (mainly endogenous origin) and digesta (primarily bacterial origin) with the most pronounced effects occurring 5 days post-weaning. Moreover, differences in activities exist between different glycosidases and between gut locations. These insights can facilitate the prediction of the fate of existing and newly synthetized glycosides after oral ingestion in piglets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noémie Van Noten
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | - Jeroen Degroote
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Stefaan De Smet
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Tom Desmet
- Department of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Joris Michiels
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
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Van Noten N, Van Liefferinge E, Degroote J, De Smet S, Desmet T, Michiels J. Fate of Thymol and Its Monoglucosides in the Gastrointestinal Tract of Piglets. ACS OMEGA 2020; 5:5241-5248. [PMID: 32201813 PMCID: PMC7081444 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.9b04309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2019] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
The monoterpene thymol has been proposed as a valuable alternative to in-feed antibiotics in animal production. However, the effectiveness of the antimicrobial is comprised by its fast absorption in the upper gastrointestinal tract. In this work, two glucoconjugates, thymol α-d-glucopyranoside (TαG) and thymol β-d-glucopyranoside (TβG), were compared with free thymol for their potential to deliver higher concentrations of the active compound to the distal small intestine of supplemented piglets. Additionally, an analytical method was developed and validated for the simultaneous quantification of thymol and its glucoconjugates in different matrices. In stomach contents of pigs fed with 3333 μmol kg-1 thymol, TαG, or TβG, total thymol concentrations amounted to 3048, 2357, and 1820 μmol kg-1 dry matter, respectively. In glucoconjugate-fed pigs, over 30% of this concentration was present in the unconjugated form, suggesting partial hydrolysis in the stomach. No quantifiable levels of thymol or glucoconjugates were detected in the small intestine or cecum for any treatment, indicating that conjugation with one glucose unit did not sufficiently protect thymol from early absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noémie Van Noten
- Department
of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Elout Van Liefferinge
- Department
of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Jeroen Degroote
- Department
of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Stefaan De Smet
- Department
of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Tom Desmet
- Department
of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Joris Michiels
- Department
of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- . Phone: +32 9/264.90.00
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Van Noten N, Degroote J, Van Liefferinge E, Taminiau B, De Smet S, Desmet T, Michiels J. Effects of Thymol and Thymol α-D-Glucopyranoside on Intestinal Function and Microbiota of Weaned Pigs. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:E329. [PMID: 32092931 PMCID: PMC7070699 DOI: 10.3390/ani10020329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2020] [Revised: 02/16/2020] [Accepted: 02/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study evaluated gluco-conjugation as a measure to delay thymol absorption and enhance its antimicrobial activity in the gut of weaned piglets. The three dietary treatments consisted of a basal diet without additives (TCON), supplemented with thymol at 3.7 mmol/kg dry matter (TTHY), or with an equimolar amount of thymol α-D-glucopyranoside (TTαG). Each dietary treatment was replicated in 6 pens with 2 piglets per pen (n = 12 for analytical parameters) and was supplemented for 14 days. The total (free plus gluco-conjugated) thymol concentrations in the stomach contents were 14% lower in TTαG as compared to TTHY piglets. Neither of the additives could be detected further down the gut. E.coli counts in the proximal small intestine were significantly lower in TTHY than in TTαG pigs (3.35 vs. 4.29 log10 CFU/g); however, other bacterial counts and their metabolites were unaffected by treatment. A metagenomic bacterial analysis revealed a great relative abundance of Lactobacillus spp. in the distal small intestine (range 88.4%-99.9%), irrespective of treatment. The intestinal barrier function was improved by TTHY, but not TTαG, compared to TCON. In conclusion, gluco-conjugation did not result in higher thymol concentrations in the gut, but conversely, it seemed to diminish the biological effects of thymol in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noémie Van Noten
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (N.V.N.); (J.D.); (E.V.L.); (S.D.S.)
| | - Jeroen Degroote
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (N.V.N.); (J.D.); (E.V.L.); (S.D.S.)
| | - Elout Van Liefferinge
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (N.V.N.); (J.D.); (E.V.L.); (S.D.S.)
| | - Bernard Taminiau
- Department of Food Sciences, University of Liège, Quartier Vallée 2, Avenue de Cureghem 7A-7D, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Stefaan De Smet
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (N.V.N.); (J.D.); (E.V.L.); (S.D.S.)
| | - Tom Desmet
- Department of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium;
| | - Joris Michiels
- Department of Animal Sciences and Aquatic Ecology, Ghent University, Coupure Links 653, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (N.V.N.); (J.D.); (E.V.L.); (S.D.S.)
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Sharma G, Raturi K, Dang S, Gupta S, Gabrani R. Inhibitory effect of cinnamaldehyde alone and in combination with thymol, eugenol and thymoquinone against Staphylococcus epidermidis. J Herb Med 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.hermed.2016.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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