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Santos MI, Grácio M, Silva MC, Pedroso L, Lima A. One Health Perspectives on Food Safety in Minimally Processed Vegetables and Fruits: From Farm to Fork. Microorganisms 2023; 11:2990. [PMID: 38138132 PMCID: PMC10745503 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms11122990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Revised: 12/05/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
While food markets and food production chains are experiencing exponential growth, global attention to food safety is steadily increasing. This is particularly crucial for ready-to-eat products such as fresh-cut salads and fruits, as these items are consumed raw without prior heat treatment, making the presence of pathogenic microorganisms quite frequent. Moreover, many studies on foodborne illnesses associated with these foods often overlook the transmission links from the initial contamination source. The prevention and control of the dissemination of foodborne pathogens should be approached holistically, involving agricultural production, processing, transport, food production, and extending to final consumption, all while adopting a One Health perspective. In this context, our objective is to compile available information on the challenges related to microbiological contamination in minimally handled fruits and vegetables. This includes major reported outbreaks, specific bacterial strains, and associated statistics throughout the production chain. We address the sources of contamination at each stage, along with issues related to food manipulation and disinfection. Additionally, we provide potential solutions to promote a healthier approach to fresh-cut fruits and vegetables. This information will be valuable for both researchers and food producers, particularly those focused on ensuring food safety and quality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Isabel Santos
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lusófona University, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal; (M.C.S.); (L.P.)
- CECAV—Centre of Animal and Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lusófona University, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Madalena Grácio
- Instituto Superior de Agronomia, University of Lisbon, 1349-017 Lisbon, Portugal;
| | - Mariana Camoesas Silva
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lusófona University, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal; (M.C.S.); (L.P.)
| | - Laurentina Pedroso
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lusófona University, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal; (M.C.S.); (L.P.)
- CECAV—Centre of Animal and Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lusófona University, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal
| | - Ana Lima
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lusófona University, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal; (M.C.S.); (L.P.)
- CECAV—Centre of Animal and Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Lusófona University, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal
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Pires AFA, Ramos TDM, Baron JN, Millner PD, Pagliari PH, Hutchinson M, Haghani V, Aminabadi P, Kenney A, Hashem F, Martínez-López B, Bihn EA, Clements DP, Shade JB, Sciligo AR, Jay-Russell MT. Risk factors associated with the prevalence of Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli in manured soils on certified organic farms in four regions of the USA. FRONTIERS IN SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS 2023. [DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1125996] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/28/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionBiological soil amendments of animal origin (BSAAO), including untreated amendments are often used to improve soil fertility and are particularly important in organic agriculture. However, application of untreated manure on cropland can potentially introduce foodborne pathogens into the soil and onto produce. Certified organic farms follow the USDA National Organic Program (NOP) standards that stipulate a 90- or 120-day interval between application of untreated manure and crop harvest, depending on whether the edible portion of the crop directly contacts the soil. This time-interval metric is based on environmental factors and does not consider a multitude of factors that might affect the survival of the main pathogens of concern. The objective of this study was to assess predictors for the prevalence of Shiga-toxin-producing Escherichia coli (non-O157 STEC) in soils amended with untreated manure on USDA-NOP certified farms.MethodsA longitudinal, multi-regional study was conducted on 19 farms in four USA regions for two growing seasons (2017–2018). Untreated manure (cattle, horse, and poultry), soil, and irrigation water samples were collected and enrichment cultured for non-O157 STEC. Mixed effects logistic regression models were used to analyze the predictors of non-O157 STEC in the soil up to 180 days post-manure application.Results and discussionResults show that farm management practices (previous use with livestock, presence of animal feces on the field, season of manure application) and soil characteristics (presence of generic E. coli in the soil, soil moisture, sodium) increased the odds of STEC-positive soil samples. Manure application method and snowfall decreased the odds of detecting STEC in the soil. Time-variant predictors (year and sampling day) affected the presence of STEC. This study shows that a single metric, such as the time interval between application of untreated manure and crop harvest, may not be sufficient to reduce the food safety risks from untreated manure, and additional environmental and farm-management practices should also be considered. These findings are of particular importance because they provide multi-regional baseline data relating to current NOP wait-time standards. They can therefore contribute to the development of strategies to reduce pathogen persistence that may contribute to contamination of fresh produce typically eaten raw from NOP-certified farms using untreated manure.
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Ramos TDM, Jay-Russell MT, Millner PD, Baron JN, Stover J, Pagliari P, Hutchinson M, Lilley J, Rowley N, Haghani V, Aminabadi P, Kenney A, Hashem F, Martínez-López B, Bihn EA, Clements DP, Shade JB, Sciligo AR, Pires AFA. Survival and Persistence of Foodborne Pathogens in Manure-Amended Soils and Prevalence on Fresh Produce in Certified Organic Farms: A Multi-Regional Baseline Analysis. FRONTIERS IN SUSTAINABLE FOOD SYSTEMS 2021. [DOI: 10.3389/fsufs.2021.674767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Biological soil amendments of animal origin (BSAAOs), including untreated (e.g., raw or aged manure, or incompletely composted manure) and treated animal products (e.g., compost), are used for crop production and as part of soil health management. Application of BSAAO's must be done cautiously, as raw manure commonly contains enteric foodborne pathogens that can potentially contaminate edible produce that may be consumed without cooking. USDA National Organic Program (NOP) certified production systems follow the 90-or 120-day interval standards between applications of untreated BSAAOs and crop harvest, depending on whether the edible portions of the crops are in indirect or direct contact with the soil, respectively. This study was conducted to evaluate the survival of four foodborne pathogens in soils amended with BSAAOs and to examine the potential for bacterial transfer to fresh produce harvested from USDA NOP certified organic farms (19) from four states. Only 0.4% (2/527) of produce samples were positive for L. monocytogenes. Among the untreated manure and compost samples, 18.0% (42/233) were positive for at least one of the tested and culturable bacterial foodborne pathogens. The prevalence of non-O157 STEC and Salmonella in untreated manure was substantially > that of E. coli O157:H7 and L. monocytogenes. Of the 2,461 soil samples analyzed in this study, 12.9% (318) were positive for at least one pathogen. In soil amended with untreated manure, the prevalence of non-O157 STEC [7.7% (190) and L. monocytogenes (5.0% (122), was > that of Salmonella (1.1% (26)] or E. coli O157 [0.04% (1)]. Foodborne pathogen prevalence in the soil peaked after manure application and decreased significantly 30 days post-application (dpa). However, non-O157 STEC and L. monocytogenes were recovered from soil samples after 90 and 120 dpa. Results indicate that produce contamination by tested foodborne pathogens was infrequent, but these data should not be generalized outside of the specific wait-time regulations for organic crop production and the farms studied. Moreover, other sources of contamination, e.g., irrigation, wildlife, environmental conditions, cropping and management practices, should be considered. This study also provides multi-regional baseline data relating to current NOP application intervals and development of potential risk mitigation strategies to reduce pathogen persistence in soils amended with BSAAOs. These findings contribute to filling critical data gaps concerning occurrence of fecal pathogens in NOP-certified farming systems used for production of fresh produce in different US regions.
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Durso LM, Gilley JE, Miller DN. Differential Survival of Non-O157 Shiga Toxigenic Escherichia coli in Simulated Cattle Feedlot Runoff. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2021; 18:771-777. [PMID: 34242513 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2021.0024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Environmental survival time is important when evaluating adverse health outcomes from foodborne pathogens. Although outbreaks associated with manure-impacted irrigation or runoff water are relatively infrequent, their broad scope, regulatory importance, and severe health outcomes highlight the need to better understand the environmental survival of manure-borne pathogens. Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC) are excreted in feces and persist in the environment until they die or recolonize a new host. Surface waters contaminated with manure-borne STEC can infect humans through drinking and recreational water use or irrigated crops that are minimally cooked. In this study, manure-impacted water microcosms mimicking beef cattle feedlot runoff were used to assess survival of STEC strains representing seven STEC serotypes (O26, O45, O103, O111, O121, O145, and O157) and persistence of target O antigen genes. Microcosms were sampled over the course of 1 year, and the entire experiment was repeated in a second year. Culture and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based techniques were used for detection and enumeration. Serotype-specific survival results were observed. Both STEC O26 and O45 declined slowly and remained culturable at 24 months. In contrast, STEC O121 and O145 decreased rapidly (-0.84 and -1.99 log10 abundance per month, respectively) and were unculturable by months 4 and 5, but detectable by PCR for a mean of 4.5 and 8.3 months, respectively. STEC O103, O111, and O157 remained culturable for a mean of 11.6, 5.5, and 15 months and detectable by PCR for a mean of 12, 13.8, and 18.6 months after inoculation, respectively. Results document that some STEC serotypes have the biological potential to survive in manure-impacted waters for extended periods of time when competing microflora are eliminated. Serotype-specific differences in survival of target bacteria and persistence of target genes were observed in this sample set, with STEC O26 and O45 strains appearing the most robust in these microcosm studies.
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Hamilton AM, Paulsen DJ, Trout Fryxell RT, Orta VE, Gorman SJ, Smith DM, Buchanan JR, Wszelaki AL, Critzer FJ. Prevalence of Salmonella enterica in Flies on a Diversified Cattle and Fresh Produce Farm across Two Growing Seasons. J Food Prot 2021; 84:1009-1015. [PMID: 33465237 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-20-339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2020] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Flies are a vector for spreading foodborne pathogens pertinent to fresh produce, such as Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli and Salmonella; however, most studies focus on concentrated animal feeding operations, which do not reflect low-density animal farming practices that often adjoin fruit and vegetable acreage. In this study, we determined the prevalence of Salmonella in flies collected biweekly on an integrated animal and produce operation over two growing seasons. Eleven of 889 pooled samples tested positive for Salmonella. Flies from the Calliphoridae, Muscidae, Sarcophagidae, and Tachinidae families were associated with Salmonella carriage, but fly family was not a significant factor for isolation of Salmonella (P = 0.303). Fly species were a significant factor (P = 0.026), with five Pentacricia aldrichii pools testing positive for Salmonella. With the exception of single specimen isolation, prevalence ranged from 2.2 to 15.2%. With the exception of the Tachinidae family, these results reflect a strong association of flies that are commonly associated with feces or are pests of animals. Trap location was not significantly associated with isolation of Salmonella-positive flies (P = 0.236). Overall, the population of flies was not as abundant as studies conducted with produce grown close to concentrated animal feeding operations, indicating a reduced risk of transmission; however, similar to these studies, fly families that are commonly isolated from fecal and decaying matter were most frequently associated with Salmonella isolation. Further work is warranted to elucidate the foodborne pathogen transmission rates to produce and subsequent survival over time. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexis M Hamilton
- School of Food Science, Irrigated Agriculture Research and Experiment Center, Washington State University, Prosser, Washington 99350
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Annette L Wszelaki
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, 37996, USA
| | - Faith J Critzer
- School of Food Science, Irrigated Agriculture Research and Experiment Center, Washington State University, Prosser, Washington 99350
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Coulombe G, Catford A, Martinez-Perez A, Buenaventura E. Outbreaks of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Infections Linked to Romaine Lettuce in Canada from 2008 to 2018: An Analysis of Food Safety Context. J Food Prot 2020; 83:1444-1462. [PMID: 32297933 DOI: 10.4315/jfp-20-029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Foodborne diseases are a major cause of illness in Canada. One of the main pathogens causing cases and outbreaks of foodborne illness in Canada is Escherichia coli O157:H7. From 2008 to 2018, 11 outbreaks of E. coli O157:H7 infection in Canada were linked to leafy greens, including 7 (63.6%) linked to romaine lettuce, 2 (18.2%) linked to iceberg lettuce, and 2 (18.2%) linked to other or unspecified types of leafy greens. The consumption of lettuce in Canada, the behavior of E. coli O157:H7 on lettuce leaves, and the production practices used for romaine and iceberg lettuce do not seem to explain why a higher number of outbreaks of E. coli O157:H7 infection were linked to romaine than to iceberg lettuce. However, the difference in the shape of iceberg and romaine lettuce heads could be an important factor. Among the seven outbreaks linked to romaine lettuce in Canada between 2008 and 2018, an eastern distribution of cases was observed. Cases from western provinces were reported only twice. The consumption of romaine and iceberg lettuce by the Canadian population does not seem to explain the eastern distribution of cases observed, but the commercial distribution, travel distances, and the storage practices used for lettuce may be important factors. In the past 10 years, the majority of the outbreaks of E. coli O157:H7 infection linked to romaine lettuce occurred during the spring (March to June) and fall (September to December). The timing of these outbreaks may be explained by the availability of lettuce in Canada, the growing region transition periods in the United States, and the seasonality in the prevalence of E. coli O157:H7. The consumption of romaine lettuce by the Canadian population does not explain the timing of the outbreaks observed. HIGHLIGHTS
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Affiliation(s)
- GeneviÈve Coulombe
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0K9
| | - Angela Catford
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0K9
| | - Amalia Martinez-Perez
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0K9
| | - Enrico Buenaventura
- Bureau of Microbial Hazards, Food Directorate, Health Canada, 251 Sir Frederick Banting Driveway, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0K9
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