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Rostamifar S, Azad A, Bazrafkan A, Modaresi F, Atashpour S, Jahromi ZK. New Strategy of Reducing Biofilm Forming Bacteria in Oral Cavity by Bismuth Nanoparticles. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 2021:6695692. [PMID: 33604383 PMCID: PMC7872758 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6695692] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2020] [Revised: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Enterococcus faecalis and Streptococcus salivarius are the most important species in dental decay and producing biofilm. Treatment with chlorhexidine 2% mouthwash for 7 days is the best way to eliminate these bacteria. However, due to the ability of these bacteria to survive in harsh environments, increasing emergence of bacterial resistance against available antibiotics, and favorable properties of nanoparticles including broad spectrum antimicrobial activity and lower toxicity, we decided to evaluate reducing biofilm forming bacteria in oral cavity by bismuth nanoparticles. MATERIALS AND METHODS This was a cross-sectional study of 40 samples isolated from the patients visiting dental clinics in Shiraz in 2019. Samples, which showed growth, were cultured on blood agar plates and incubated for the PCR procedure. Nanoparticle powder was dissolved in high-purity water, and the final concentration of bismuth nanoparticles (BiNPs) was measured with a spectrophotometer. Minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of BiNPs against E. faecalis and S. salivarius was determined by the microbroth dilution method according to methods for antimicrobial susceptibility tests. Also, bactericidal assays were conducted in a Mueller-Hinton broth medium and reported as the concentration of BiNPs that reduced the viable bacterial count by 99.9%. Statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS 21 and one-way analysis of variance, and P values less than 0.05 were considered significant. RESULTS MICs of BiNP suspension against Streptococcus salivarius and Enterococcus faecalis were 2.5 and 5 μg/ml, respectively. Minimum bactericidal concentrations (MBC) of BiNP suspension against Streptococcus salivarius and Enterococcus faecalis were 5 and 10 μg/ml, respectively. Antibacterial activity of BiNPs was compared with chlorhexidine 2%. MICs of BiNPs against Streptococcus salivarius and Enterococcus faecalis were one-twentieth less than those of chlorhexidine. MBC of BiNPs against both pathogens was one-tenth less than those of chlorhexidine. CONCLUSION BiNPs were more effective than chlorhexidine, and MIC and MBC of bismuth nanoparticles are lower than those of chlorhexidine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahar Rostamifar
- Student Research Committee, School of Dentistry, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Azita Azad
- Oral and Dental Disease Research Center, Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Medicine, School of Dentistry, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Ali Bazrafkan
- Student Research Committee, School of Dentistry, Shiraz University of Medical Sciences, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Farzan Modaresi
- Departments of Microbiology, Advanced Medical Sciences and Technology, and Central Laboratory Research, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran
| | - Shekoufeh Atashpour
- Departments of Pharmacology, Advanced Medical Sciences and Technology, and Central Laboratory Research, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran
| | - Zahra Kargar Jahromi
- Central Research Laboratory, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran
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Sabbagh HJ, AlGhamdi KS, Mujalled HT, Bagher SM. The effect of brushing with Salvadora persica (miswak) sticks on salivary Streptococcus mutans and plaque levels in children: a clinical trial. BMC Complement Med Ther 2020; 20:53. [PMID: 32054468 PMCID: PMC7076868 DOI: 10.1186/s12906-020-2847-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 02/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The aim of the randomized double-blinded clinical trial was to evaluate the effect of tooth brushing with Salvadora persica (miswak) sticks on Streptococcus mutans count and the mean plaque score relative to brushing with fluoridated tooth paste (FTP). Methods Our sample included 94 healthy, high caries-risk, 8 to 9-year-old students recruited from a government school, in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia between February and April 2016. Subjects were randomly grouped into test (provided with miswak sticks) and control groups (provided with FTP and soft brushes). Both groups were introduced to a preparatory period (PPP) of 3 weeks. Plaque score and saliva sampling were conducted prior to the PPP and in follow-up visits by a single, calibrated and blinded dentist. Results Both groups showed a statistically significant decrease in the mean plaque score across the study (P = 0.007 and P = 0.001, respectively). In addition, subjects in the test group with abundant S. sanguinis increased from zero to six after 3 months. Conclusions Salvadora Persica (miswak) and brushing with FTP significantly reduced plaque scores among school children. In addition, Salvadora persica was found to change the proportions of salivary bacteria in favor of species with less risk of inducing caries. Trial registration ClinicalTrials.gov ID #: NCT04137393.
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Affiliation(s)
- Heba J Sabbagh
- Pediatric Dentistry Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Khalil S AlGhamdi
- Bani Kabir Primary Health care Centre, Baljurshi Health Sector, Ministry of Health, Albaha, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Sara M Bagher
- Pediatric Dentistry Department, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
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Abstract
Herbal remedies are used throughout the world, either in earlier or in recent times. The number of studies on this alternative therapeutic system increased in the last decades. In this paper, the relevant literature on the use of natural products in root canal therapy is revised from a MEDLINE database search. The uses of medicinal plants in endodontics include cleaning and disinfection of root canals, intracanal medicaments between appointments, sealer cements, and for removal of obturation material. Other studies showed the effect of natural products in pulpal and dentin repair. Their use is anecdotal, and their effectiveness showed to be variable and is always compared to the chemical standards currently being used. Alkaloids, coumarins, saponins, and flavonoids are aromatic substances that are produced by plants and evaluated for their therapeutic potential. Further investigation into benefits of natural products is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ebtissam M Almadi
- Department of Restorative Sciences, College of Dentistry, King Saud University, Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. E-mail.
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Sobouti F, Rakhshan V, Heydari M, Keikavusi S, Dadgar S, Shariati M. Effets d’un traitement orthodontique fixe et de deux bains de bouche sur la santé gingivale : Cohorte prospective suivie d’un essai clinique randomisé, contrôlé par placebo, en simple insu. Int Orthod 2018; 16:12-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ortho.2018.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Aumeeruddy MZ, Zengin G, Mahomoodally MF. A review of the traditional and modern uses of Salvadora persica L. (Miswak): Toothbrush tree of Prophet Muhammad. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2018; 213:409-444. [PMID: 29196134 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2017.11.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2017] [Revised: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/26/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Salvadora persica L., also known as Arak (in Arabic) and Peelu (in Urdu), is the most common traditional source of tooth or chewing stick (miswak) highly recommended by Prophet Muhammad. To date, extensive studies have probed primarily into the validation of its traditional uses in oral care. Nonetheless, there is still a dearth of updated compilation and critical analysis of other potential ethnopharmacological properties of S. persica. This review therefore aims to provide an up-to-date detailed structured description of the traditional uses of S. persica and a critical analysis of its modern uses, highlighting its phytochemistry, pharmacological properties, and bioapplications. MATERIALS AND METHODS Various databases (Science Direct, PubMed, Wiley Online Library, and Google Scholar), books, and relevant primary sources were probed, surveyed, analysed, and included in this review. The literature cited in this review dated from 1979 to 2017. RESULTS S. persica was found to possess a plethora of bioactive compounds and broad pharmacological properties, including antimicrobial, antioxidant, enzyme inhibitory activity, antiulcer, anticonvulsant, sedative, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, antiosteoporosis, and antitumor activities. Studies also revealed the potential use of S. persica as a natural food preservative and a novel functional food ingredient. In addition, improvement in growth and reproductive performances have been observed by the introduction of S. persica in animal feed. Lastly, S. persica has also been used in the green synthesis of nanoparticles showing potential biotechnological applications. CONCLUSION S. persica showed a wide scope of application and its uses have been extended far beyond the initial traditional uses of its roots, stems, and twigs in oral care. We found a number of other ethnopharmacological uses and potential bioapplications of different parts of S. persica that warrants further investigations. Though widely studied using several in vitro and in vivo models, and tested clinically for oral hygiene mainly, several gaps and research priorities have been identified which needs to be addressed in future.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Gokhan Zengin
- Department of Biology, Science Faculty, Selcuk University, 42250 Konya, Turkey
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Sobouti F, Rakhshan V, Heydari M, Keikavusi S, Dadgar S, Shariati M. Effects of fixed orthodontic treatment and two new mouth rinses on gingival health: A prospective cohort followed by a single-blind placebo-controlled randomized clinical trial. Int Orthod 2018; 16:12-30. [PMID: 29478929 DOI: 10.1016/j.ortho.2018.01.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Routine brushing protocols might not suffice to reduce the increased plaque accumulation in orthodontic patients. Antimicrobial mouth rinses are favorable in this regard. This two-phase study evaluated the effects of orthodontic treatment and the application of two mouthwashes not studied before on oral health indices. METHODS In this two-phase study (a prospective cohort followed by a parallel randomized controlled trial), plaque index (PI), gingival index (GI), gingival bleeding index (GBI), and pocket probing depth (PPD) were measured in 54 orthodontic patients before orthodontic treatment and 4 months later. Then patients were randomized into three groups of mouthrinses: Persica (herbal), Ortho-Kin (containing diluted chlorhexidine), and Placebo (n=18×3). The effects of orthodontic treatment and mouthrinses were analyzed statistically (α=0.05). RESULTS All the 4 indices increased between the baseline and 4th month of treatment (P values<0.01, paired t-test). They decreased back to baseline levels or below them, after one month of mouthwash application (P values<0.002). Both mouthwashes showed therapeutic effects compared to placebo in terms of PI and GBI. In the case of GI, only Persica showed significantly better results compared to placebo. Regarding PPD, only Ortho-Kin acted better than placebo (P values≤0.05, Tukey). LIMITATIONS OF THE RANDOMIZED CONTROL TRIAL (RCT) PHASE Lack of positive control (regular chlorhexidine mouth rinse) and negative control (a group with no mouthwashes, even without the placebo). Lack of sample size predetermination based on a priori power calculations. The difference between the regime of Persica with that of Ortho-Kin and placebo (which had similar application protocols) disallowed perfectly effective blinding of the patients (hence, single-blind). CONCLUSION Fixed orthodontic treatment might disrupt gingival health. Antimicrobial mouthwashes might reverse this. Both evaluated mouthwashes might have therapeutic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhad Sobouti
- Orthodontics department, dental faculty, Mazandaran university of medical sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Vahid Rakhshan
- Iranian tissue engineering and graft bank and research center, Tehran university of medical sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of dental anatomy and morphology, dental school,Azad University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Mohaddeseh Heydari
- Dental Implant Research Center, Dentistry Research Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Shohreh Keikavusi
- Faculty of dentistry, student research committee, Mazandaran university of medical sciences, Sari, Iran
| | - Sepideh Dadgar
- Orthodontics department, dental faculty, Mazandaran university of medical sciences, Sari, Iran.
| | - Mahsa Shariati
- Craniomaxillofacial surgery research center, Tehran university of medical sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Abstract
Objectives: To evaluate the efficacy of Salvadora persica (Miswak) products on cariogenic bacteria in comparison with ordinary toothpaste. Methods: The study was conducted in Zakho city, Kurdistan region, Iraq during the period from October 2013 to January 2014. A randomized controlled clinical trial of 40 students randomly allocated into 4 groups. They were instructed to use Mismark toothpaste, Miswak mouthwash, and ordinary toothpaste with water or with normal saline. Salivary samples were collected at 3-time intervals: before, immediately after use, and after 2 weeks of use. The effect of each method on Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacilli was evaluated by using caries risk test. Results: One-way repeated measure analysis of variance (ANOVA), one-way ANOVA, and least significant difference tests were used. Miswak wash has a significant reduction effect on both bacteria immediately and after 2 weeks of use. Miswak paste has a similar effect on Lactobacilli, while Streptococcus mutans showed a significant decrease only after 2 weeks of use. Ordinary paste showed a non significant effect on both bacteria at both time intervals; while the addition of normal saline showed a significant effect on both bacteria only after 2 weeks of use. Conclusion: Miswak products, especially mouth wash, were more effective in reducing the growth of cariogenic bacteria than ordinary toothpaste.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samim A Al-Dabbagh
- Department of Family and Community Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Duhok, Kurdistan region, Iraq. E-mail.
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Aghili H, Yassaei S, Eslami F. Evaluation of the effect of three mouthwashes on the mechanical properties and surface morphology of several orthodontic wires: An in vitro study. Dent Res J (Isfahan) 2017; 14:252-259. [PMID: 28928779 PMCID: PMC5553253 DOI: 10.4103/1735-3327.211629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the changes in the mechanical properties and surface morphology of different orthodontic wires after immersion in three mouthwash solutions. Materials and Methods: In this in vitro study, five specimens of each of 0.016 inch nickel titanium (NiTi), coated NiTi, and stainless steel orthodontic wires were selected. The specimens were immersed in 0.05% sodium fluoride (NaF), 0.2% chlorhexidine, Zataria multiflora extract, and distilled water (control) for 1.5 h at 37°C. After immersion, loading and unloading forces at 0.5 mm intervals and the elastic modulus (E) of the wires were measured using a three-point bending test. Surface changes were observed with a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Two-way analysis of variance and Bonferroni tests were used to compare the properties of the wires. The level of significance was set at 0.05. Results: Statistically significant changes in loading and unloading forces and E of the orthodontic wires were observed after immersion in different mouthwash solutions (P < 0.05). A pairwise comparison showed a nonsignificant difference between the effect of different mouthwashes on the E of different types of wires (P > 0.05). SEM images showed surface changes in some types ofthe orthodontic wires. Conclusion: The mouthwashes used in this study seemed to change the mechanical properties and surface quality of the orthodontic wires.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hossein Aghili
- Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
| | - Sogra Yassaei
- Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Shahid Sadoughi University of Medical Sciences, Yazd, Iran
| | - Farzaneh Eslami
- Department of Orthodontics, Dental Research Center, School of Dentistry, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
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Sushma R, Sathe TT, Farias A, Sanyal PK, Kiran S. "Nature cures:" An alternative herbal formulation as a denture cleanser. Ann Afr Med 2017; 16:6-12. [PMID: 28300045 PMCID: PMC5452698 DOI: 10.4103/aam.aam_43_16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Candida albicans is one of the microorganisms which harbor the oral cavity, especially in elderly. However, the incidence of existence of this increases in patients using removable dental prosthesis. There is therefore a need to test the anticandidal efficacy of these cost-effective, easily available products to be used as routine denture cleansers. AIM AND OBJECTIVES (1) To evaluate antifungal properties of triphala churna on the heat cure denture base material. (2) To evaluate the antifungal effect of chlorhexidine gluconate on the heat cure denture base material. (3) To compare the antifungal effect of triphala churna and chlorhexidine gluconate with a control. (4) To evaluate which among triphala churna and chlorhexidine gluconate has a better antifungal property on the heat cure denture base material. MATERIALS AND METHODS Study population consisted of sixty dentures wearers from those attending the Outpatient Department of Prosthodontics of the School of Dentistry, Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University, Karad. Swabs were collected from the dentures before and after the use of triphala and chlorhexidine. The swabs were cultured on Sabouraud dextrose agar and the total Candida counts were determined. CONCLUSION Triphala as an antifungal is shown to have more efficacy than the conventional chlorhexidine mouthwash. Résumé Arrière-plan: Candida albicans est l'un des micro-organismes qui abritent la cavité buccale surtout chez les personnes âgées. Cependant, l'incidence de l'existence de cette augmentation chez les patients utilisant des prothèses dentaires amovibles. Il est donc nécessaire de tester l'efficacité anticancédique de ces produits rentables et faciles à utiliser pour être utilisés comme nettoyants de routine pour prothèses dentaires. Buts et Objectifs: (1) Évaluer les propriétés antifongiques de Triphala churna sur le matériau de base de la prothèse thermo-durcissable. (2) Évaluer l'effet antifongique du gluconate de chlorhexidine sur le matériau de base de la prothèse thermo-durcissable. (3) Comparer l'effet antifongique de Triphala churna et du gluconate de chlorhexidine avec un témoin. (4) Évaluer lequel parmi Triphala churna et le gluconate de chlorhexidine a une meilleure propriété antifongique sur le matériel de base de la prothèse de durcissement à chaud. Matériaux et Méthode: La population de l'étude était constituée de soixante porteurs de prothèses dentaires de ceux qui fréquentaient le Département de Prosthodontie de l'École des Sciences Dentaires de l'Institut Krishna des Sciences Médicales de l'Université de Karad. Des prélèvements ont été effectués sur les prothèses avant et après l'utilisation de Triphala et de chlorhexidine. On a cultivé les écouvillons sur de l'agar Sabouraud dextrose et on a déterminé le nombre total de candida. CONCLUSION Triphala comme un anti fongique est démontré pour avoir plus d'efficacité que le lavage de la bouche classique chlorhexidine.
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Affiliation(s)
- R. Sushma
- Department of Prosthodontics and Crown and Bridge, School of Dental Sciences, Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences and Deemed University, Karad, Maharashtra, India
| | - Tanuja Tanaji Sathe
- Department of Prosthodontics and Crown and Bridge, School of Dental Sciences, Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences and Deemed University, Karad, Maharashtra, India
| | - Anand Farias
- Department of Prosthodontics and Crown and Bridge, Melaka-Manipal Medical College, Melaka, Malaysia
| | - Pronob Kumar Sanyal
- Department of Prosthodontics and Crown and Bridge, School of Dental Sciences, Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences and Deemed University, Karad, Maharashtra, India
| | - Shashi Kiran
- Department of Pedodontics and Preventive Dentistry, School of Dental Sciences, Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences and Deemed University, Karad, Maharashtra, India
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Alili N, Türp JC, Kulik EM, Waltimo T. Volatile compounds of Salvadora persica inhibit the growth of oral Candida species. Arch Oral Biol 2014; 59:441-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.archoralbio.2014.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2013] [Revised: 11/19/2013] [Accepted: 02/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Masadeh MM, Gharaibeh SF, Alzoubi KH, Al-Azzam SI, Obeidat WM. Antimicrobial activity of common mouthwash solutions on multidrug-resistance bacterial biofilms. J Clin Med Res 2013; 5:389-94. [PMID: 23976912 PMCID: PMC3748664 DOI: 10.4021/jocmr1535w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Periodontal bacteria occur in both planktonic and biofilm forms. While poor oral hygiene leads to accumulation of bacteria, reducing these microbes is the first step toward good oral hygiene. This is usually achieved through the use of mouthwash solutions. However, the exact antibacterial activity of mouthwash solution, especially when bacteria form biofilms, is yet to be determined. In this study, we evaluated the antibacterial activity of common mouthwash solutions against standard bacteria in their planktonic and biofilm states. Methods Standard bacterial strains were cultured, and biofilm were formrd. Thereafter, using standard method for determination of minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) values of various mouthwash solutions were determined. Results Results show that common mouthwash solutions have variable antibacterial activity depending on their major active components. Only mouthwash solutions containing chlorohexidine gluconate or cetylpyridinum chloride exhibited activity against majority, but not all tested bacterial strains in their biofilm state. Additionally, bacteria are generally less susceptible to all mouthwash solutions in their biofilm as compared to planktonic state. Conclusions While mouthwash solutions have variable antibacterial activity, bacteria in their biofilm state pose a challenge to dental hygiene/care where bacteria become not susceptible to majority of available mouthwash solutions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Majed M Masadeh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid 22110, Jordan
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Miswak in oral cavity - An update. J Oral Biol Craniofac Res 2012; 3:98-101. [PMID: 25737893 DOI: 10.1016/j.jobcr.2012.09.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Miswak, scientifically known as Salvadora persica, is a species of Salvadora belonging to family Salvadoraceae. It is considered as "Nature's little toothbrush" as it is a popular chewing stick throughout Indian subcontinent. In India, it is commonly known as arak tree, meswak, peelu, kharjal or jhank. It also serves as a natural toothpaste with antibacterial, anti-caries, anti-periopathic disinfectant having anti-plaque and anti-fungal properties. Miswak sticks are being used by majority of people who cannot afford to buy the commercial western toothbrush and toothpaste mainly in rural areas of developing countries. The present review is an attempt to define the potential of the miswak in preventing and treating the common diseases of oral cavity and teeth.
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