A comprehensive and systemic review of ginseng-based nanomaterials: Synthesis, targeted delivery, and biomedical applications

Among 17 Panax species identified across the world, Panax ginseng (Korean ginseng), Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng), and Panax notoginseng (Chinese ginseng) are highly recognized for the presence of bioactive compound, ginsenosides and their pharmacological effects. P. ginseng is widely used for synthesis of different types of nanoparticles compared to P. quinquefolius and P. notoginseng. The use of nano-ginseng could increase the oral bioavailability, membrane permeability, and thus provide effective delivery of ginsenosides to the target sites through transport system. In this review, we explore the synthesis of ginseng nanoparticles using plant extracts from various organs, microbes, and polymers, as well as their biomedical applications. Furthermore, we highlight transporters involved in transport of ginsenoside nanoparticles to the target sites. Size, zeta potential, temperature, and pH are also discussed as the critical parameters affecting the quality of ginseng nanoparticles synthesis.

Preparation and pharmacological effects of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles: a review

Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is a perennial herbaceous plant belonging to Panax genus of Araliaceae. Ginsenosides are a kind of important compounds in ginseng and minor ginsenosides are secondary metabolic derivatives of ginsenosides. Studies have shown that minor ginsenosides have many pharmacological effects, such as antioxidant, anti-tumor, anti-platelet aggregation, and neuroprotective effects. However, the therapeutic effects of minor ginsenosides are limited due to poor solubility in water, short half-life, and poor targeting accuracy. In recent years, to improve the application efficiency, the research on the nanocrystallization of minor ginsenosides have attracted extensive attention from researchers. This review focuses on the classification, preparation methods, pharmacological effects, and action mechanisms of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles, as well as existing problems and future direction of relevant research, which provides a reference for the in-depth research of minor ginsenoside nanoparticles.

Synthesis of hyaluronic acid or O-carboxymethyl chitosan-stabilized ZnO–ginsenoside Rh2 nanocomposites incorporated with aqueous leaf extract of Dendropanax morbifera Léveille: in vitro studies as potential sunscreen agents

Synthesis of Rh2–ZnO nanocomposites stabilized with hyaluronic acid or O-carboxymethyl chitosan.

Intracellular synthesis of gold nanoparticles with antioxidant activity by probiotic Lactobacillus kimchicus DCY51T isolated from Korean kimchi

A straightforward synthesis of gold nanoparticles (AuNps) is achieved by novel probiotic Lactobacillus kimchicus DCY51^T isolated from Korean kimchi via an intracellular membrane-bound mechanism. The bioreduction of HAuCl₄ into AuNps was verified by ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry at ∼540nm. AuNps were spherical with varying sizes of 5-30nm. AuNps maintained an average crystallite size of 13nm and demonstrated long-term stability in physiological buffer and biological media. Furthermore, the protective capping layer consisted of amino acid residues and surface-bound proteins rendered them non-toxic to murine macrophage (RAW264.7) and human colorectal adenocarcinoma (HT29) cell lines. Finally, biosynthesized AuNps served as superior free radical scavengers against 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) in contrast to their corresponding gold salt. In short, this green synthesis is cost-effective and advantageous for the development of a new class of probiotics mediated and non-toxic carriers in targeted drug delivery systems, cancer diagnostic, photothermal therapy, biosensing, and medical imaging.

Recent advances in ginseng as cancer therapeutics: a functional and mechanistic overview

Cancer is one of the leading causes of death worldwide. Ginseng, a key ingredient in traditional Chinese medicine, shows great promise as a new treatment option. As listed by the U.S. National Institutes of Health as a complementary and alternative medicine, its anti-cancer functions are being increasingly recognized. This review covers the mechanisms of action of ginsenosides and their metabolites, which can modulate signaling pathways associated with inflammation, oxidative stress, angiogenesis, metastasis, and stem/progenitor-like properties of cancer cells. The emerging use of structurally modified ginsenosides and recent clinical studies on the use of ginseng either alone or in combination with other herbs or Western medicines which are exploited as novel therapeutic strategies will also be explored.

Contrasting effect of gold nanoparticles and nanorods with different surface modifications on the structure and activity of bovine serum albumin

Nanoparticles exposed to biofluids become coated with proteins, thus making protein-nanoparticle interactions of particular interest. The consequence on protein conformation and activity depends upon the extent of protein adsorption on the nanoparticle surface. We report the interaction of bovine serum albumin (BSA) with gold nanostructures, particularly gold nanoparticles (GNP) and gold nanorods (GNR). The difference in the geometry and surface properties of nanoparticles is manifested during complexation in terms of different binding modes, structural changes, thermodynamic parameters, and the activity of proteins. BSA is found to retain native-like structure and properties upon enthalpy-driven BSA-GNP complexation. On the contrary, the entropically favored BSA-GNR complexation leads to substantial loss in protein secondary and tertiary structures with the release of a large amount of bound water, as indicated by isothermal calorimetry (ITC), circular dichroism (CD), and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) and fluorescence spectroscopies. The esterase activity assay demonstrated a greater loss in BSA activity after complexation with GNR, whereas the original activity is retained in the presence of GNP. The formation of large assemblies (aggregates) and reduced average lifetime, as evidenced from dynamic light scattering and fluorescence decay measurements, respectively, suggest that GNR induces protein unfolding at its surface. The effect of temperature on the CD spectra of BSA-GNP was found to be similar to that of pristine BSA, whereas BSA-GNR shows distortion in CD spectra at lower wavelengths, strengthening the perception of protein unfolding. High binding constant and entropy change for BSA-GNR complexation determined by ITC are consistent with large surfacial interaction that may lead to protein unfolding. The present work highlights the differential response of a protein depending on the nature of the nanostructure and its surface chemistry, which need to be modulated for controlling the biological responses of nanostructures for their potential biomedical applications.