Antiviral activities of ginseng and its potential and putative benefits against monkeypox virus: A mini review

Due to the Covid-19 pandemic more than 6 million people have died, and it has bought unprecedented challenges to our lives. The recent outbreak of monkeypox virus (MPXV) has brought out new tensions among the scientific community. Currently, there is no specific treatment protocol for MPXV. Several antivirals, vaccinia immune globulin (VIG) and smallpox vaccines have been used to treat MPXV. Ginseng, one of the more famous among traditional medicines, has been used for infectious disease for thousands of years. It has shown promising antiviral effects. Ginseng could be used as a potential adaptogenic agent to help prevent infection by MPXV along with other drugs and vaccines. In this mini review, we explore the possible use of ginseng in MPXV prevention based on its antiviral activity.

Immuno-enhancement effects of Korean Red Ginseng in healthy adults: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial

Background

Most clinical studies of immune responses activated by Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) have been conducted exclusively in patients. However, there is still a lack of clinical research on immune-boosting benefits of KRG for healthy persons. This study aims to confirm how KRG boosts the immune system of healthy subjects.

Methods

A total of 100 healthy adult subjects were randomly divided into two groups that took either a 2 g KRG tablet or a placebo per day for 8 weeks. The primary efficacy evaluation variables included changes in T cells, B cells, and white blood cells (WBCs) before and after eight weeks of KRG ingestion. Cytokines (TNF-α, INF-γ, IL-2 and IL-4), WBC differential count, and incidence of colds were measured in the secondary efficacy evaluation variables. Safety evaluation variables were used to identify changes in laboratory test results that incorporated adverse reactions, vital signs, hematological tests, blood chemistry tests, and urinalysis.

Results

Compared to the placebo group, the KRG intake group showed a significant increase in the number of T cells (CD3) and its subtypes (CD4 and CD8), B cells, and the WBC count before and after eight weeks of the intake. There were no clinically significant adverse reactions or other notable results in the safety evaluation factors observed.

Conclusion

This study has proven through its eight-week intake test and subsequent analysis that KRG boosts the immune system through an increase in T cells, B cells, and WBCs, and that it is safe according to the study's safety evaluation.

The effect of dietary ginseng polysaccharide supplementation on porcine milk-derived esRNAs involved in the host immune responses

Ginseng polysaccharides (GPS) have been well known as an immune modulator. This study was conducted to investigate the effects of dietary supplemental GPS on the immune responses involved in sow's milk-derived exosomal shuttle RNAs (esRNAs) using RNA-Seq and miRNA-Seq. Of the 213 identified miRNA types, a total of 26 conserved miRNAs were differently expressed in response to GPS supplementation, including 10 up-regulated and 16 down-regulated miRNAs in GPS feeding group. In addition, exosomal transcriptome analysis identified 14,696 protein-coding genes in sow's milk exosomes, and 283 genes with 204 and 79 candidates showing up and down-regulation were significantly responded to GPS supplementation. Integrated analysis of each differently expressed miRNA with significantly expressed genes further revealed the presence of 51 highly conserved miRNA-gene interactions that were annotated to be related to immunoregulatory functions. This work provided an important advance in the functional identification of dietary GPS supplementation and more fundamental information about how GPS promoted the immune response and healthy growth of the infant from mothers at molecular levels.

Red ginseng monograph

Ginseng has been traditionally used for several millennia in Asian countries, including Korea, China, and Japan, not only as a nourishing and tonifying agent but also as a therapeutic agent for a variety of diseases. In recent years, the various effects of red ginseng including immunity improvement, fatigue relief, memory improvement, blood circulation improvement, antioxidation, mitigation of menopausal women's symptoms, and anticancer an effect have been reported in clinical as well as basic research. Around the world, there is a trend of the rising consumption of health functional foods on the level of disease prevention along with increased interest in maintaining health because of population aging and the awareness of lifestyle diseases and chronic diseases. Red ginseng occupies an important position as a health functional food. But till now, international ginseng monographs including those of the World Health Organization have been based on data on white ginseng and have mentioned red ginseng only partly. Therefore, the red ginseng monograph is needed for component of red ginseng, functionality certified as a health functional food in the Korea Food and Drug Administration, major efficacy, action mechanism, and safety. The present red ginseng monograph will contribute to providing accurate information on red ginseng to agencies, businesses, and consumers both in South Korea and abroad.

Red ginseng and vitamin C increase immune cell activity and decrease lung inflammation induced by influenza A virus/H1N1 infection

Objectives

Because red ginseng and vitamin C have immunomodulatory function and anti-viral effect, we investigated whether red ginseng and vitamin C synergistically regulate immune cell function and suppress viral infection.

Methods

Red ginseng and vitamin C were treated to human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) or sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV)-infected BCBL-1, and administrated to Gulo(−/−) mice, which are incapable of synthesizing vitamin C, with or without influenza A virus/H1N1 infection.

Key findings

Red ginseng and vitamin C increased the expression of CD25 and CD69 of PBMCs and natural killer (NK) cells. Co-treatment of them decreased cell viability and lytic gene expression in BCBL-1. In Gulo(−/−) mice, red ginseng and vitamin C increased the expression of NKp46, a natural cytotoxic receptor of NK cells and interferon (IFN)-γ production. Influenza infection decreased the survival rate, and increased inflammation and viral plaque accumulation in the lungs of vitamin C-depleted Gulo(−/−) mice, which were remarkably reduced by red ginseng and vitamin C supplementation.

Conclusions

Administration of red ginseng and vitamin C enhanced the activation of immune cells like T and NK cells, and repressed the progress of viral lytic cycle. It also reduced lung inflammation caused by viral infection, which consequently increased the survival rate.

Induction of systemic resistance in Panax ginseng against Phytophthora cactorum by native Bacillus amyloliquefaciens HK34

BACKGROUND

Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) is a perennial herb prone to various root diseases, with Phytophthora cactorum being considered one of the most dreaded pathogens. P. cactorum causes foliar blight and root rot. Although chemical pesticides are available for disease control, attention has been shifted to viable, eco-friendly, and cost-effective biological means such as plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) for control of diseases.

METHODS

Native Bacillus amyloliquefaciens strain HK34 was isolated from wild ginseng and assessed as a biological control agent for ginseng. Leaves from plants treated with HK34 were analyzed for induced systemic resistance (ISR) against P. cactorum in square plate assay. Treated plants were verified for differential expression of defense-related marker genes using quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction.

RESULTS

A total of 78 native rhizosphere bacilli from wild P. ginseng were isolated. One of the root-associated bacteria identified as B. amyloliquefaciens strain HK34 effectively induced resistance against P. cactorum when applied as soil drench once (99.1% disease control) and as a priming treatment two times in the early stages (83.9% disease control). A similar result was observed in the leaf samples of plants under field conditions, where the percentage of disease control was 85.6%. Significant upregulation of the genes PgPR10, PgPR5, and PgCAT in the leaves of plants treated with HK34 was observed against P. cactorum compared with untreated controls and only pathogen-treated plants.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study indicate HK34 as a potential biocontrol agent eliciting ISR in ginseng against P. cactorum.

Protective effect of dietary xylitol on influenza A virus infection

Xylitol has been used as a substitute for sugar to prevent cavity-causing bacteria, and most studies have focused on its benefits in dental care. Meanwhile, the constituents of red ginseng (RG) are known to be effective in ameliorating the symptoms of influenza virus infection when they are administered orally for 14 days. In this study, we investigated the effect of dietary xylitol on influenza A virus infection (H1N1). We designed regimens containing various fractions of RG (RGs: whole extract, water soluble fraction, saponin and polysaccharide) and xylitol, and combination of xylitol with the RG fractions. Mice received the various combinations orally for 5 days prior to lethal influenza A virus infection. Almost all the mice died post challenge when xylitol or RGs were administered separately. Survival was markedly enhanced when xylitol was administered along with RGs, pointing to a synergistic effect. The effect of xylitol plus RG fractions increased with increasing dose of xylitol. Moreover, dietary xylitol along with the RG water soluble fraction significantly reduced lung virus titers after infection. Therefore, we suggest that dietary xylitol is effective in ameliorating influenza-induced symptoms when it is administered with RG fractions, and this protective effect of xylitol should be considered in relation to other diseases.

Study on improving blood flow with Korean red ginseng substances using digital infrared thermal imaging and Doppler sonography: randomized, double blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial with parallel design

OBJECTIVE

To examine the efficacy of Korean red ginseng for improving blood flow in healthy people.

METHODS

Participants were randomized and treated with 1500 mg of Korean red ginseng extract or placebo for 8 weeks. The effect of Korean red ginseng was evaluated by digital infrared thermal images, and Doppler sonography, and blood test.

RESULTS

Forty subjects completed the protocol. Imbalance in local thermal distribution was significantly decreased in the Korean red ginseng group confirmed by digital infrared thermal images. Doppler sonography showed no significant change in maximum and average rates of blood circulation in single or complex areas. Blood analyses for coagulation and lipid metabolism factors revealed no significant changes. No abnormal reactions to the Korean red ginseng were observed.

CONCLUSION

Digital infrared thermal imaging showed that the temperature deviation in the whole body decreased safely in the Korean red ginseng group, which mitigated the body-temperature imbalance. This result suggests that the Korean red ginseng improves blood circulation in the human body.

Ginseng, the 'Immunity Boost': The Effects of Panax ginseng on Immune System

Thousands of literatures have described the diverse role of ginseng in physiological processes such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, insulin resistance, and hypertension. In particular, ginseng has been extensively reported to maintain homeostasis of the immune system and to enhance resistance to illness or microbial attacks through the regulation of immune system. Immune system comprises of different types of cells fulfilling their own specialized functions, and each type of the immune cells is differentially influenced and may be simultaneously controlled by ginseng treatment. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the effects of ginseng on immune system. We discuss how ginseng regulates each type of immune cells including macrophages, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, T cells, and B cells. We also describe how ginseng exhibits beneficial effects on controlling inflammatory diseases and microbial infections.

Protective effect of ginsenoside-Rb2 from Korean red ginseng on the lethal infection of haemagglutinating virus of Japan in mice

Korean red ginseng has been shown to possess a variety of biological activities. However, little is known about antiviral activity of ginsenosides of Korean red ginseng. Here, we investigated the protective effect by oral administration of various ginsenosides on the lethal infection of haemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ) in mice. In a lethal infection model in which almost all mice infected with HVJ died within 15 days, the mice were administered orally (per os) with 1 mg/mouse of dammarane-type (ginsenoside-Rb1, -Rb2, -Rd, -Re, and -Rg2) or oleanolic acid-type (ginsenoside-Ro) ginsenosides 3, 2, and 1 d before virus infection. Ginsenoside-Rb2 showed the highest protective activity, although other dammarane-type and oleanolic acid-type ginsenosides also induced a significant protection against HVJ. However, neither the consecutive administration with a lower dosage (300 μg/mouse) nor the single administration of ginsenoside-Rb2 (1 mg/mouse) was active. In comparison of the protective activity between ginsenoside-Rb2 and its two hydrolytic products [20(S)- and 20(R)-ginsenoside-Rg3], 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rg3, but not 20(R)-ginsenoside-Rg3, elicited a partial protection against HVJ. The protective effect of ginsenoside-Rb2 and 20(S)-ginsenoside-Rg3 on HVJ infection was confirmed by the reduction of virus titers in the lungs of HVJ-infected mice. These results suggest that ginsenoside-Rb2 is the most effective among ginsenosides from red ginseng to prevent the lethal infection of HVJ, so that this ginsenoside is a promising candidate as a mucosal immunoadjuvant to enhance antiviral activity.

Intake of korean red ginseng extract and saponin enhances the protection conferred by vaccination with inactivated influenza a virus

Vaccination is the main strategy for preventing influenza infection. However, vaccine efficacy is influenced by several factors, including age and health status. The efficacy of the influenza vaccine is much lower (17% to 53%) in individuals over 65 yr of age compared with young adults (70% to 90%). Therefore, increasing vaccine efficacy remains a challenge for the influenza vaccine field. In this study, we investigated the impact of supplementing vaccination with the dietary intake of Korean red ginseng (RG) extract and RG saponin. Mice were immunized two times intranasally with inactivated influenza A (H1N1) virus. Mice received RG extract or RG saponin orally for 14 d prior to the primary immunization. After the primary immunization, mice continued to receive RG extract or RG saponin until the secondary immunization. Mice vaccinated in combination with dietary intake of RG extract and RG saponin showed elevated serum anti-influenza A virus IgG titers and improved survival rates in lethal influenza A virus infection: 56% and 63% of mice receiving RG extract or RG saponin survived, respectively, while 38% of mice that only received the vaccine survived. Moreover, mice receiving RG extract supplementation recovered their body weight more quickly than those not receiving RG extract supplementation. We propose that the dietary intake of RG extract and RG saponin enhances the vaccine-induced immune response and aids in providing protection against influenza virus infection.

Preventive effect of Korean red ginseng for acute respiratory illness: a randomized and double-blind clinical trial

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a functional food and has been well known for keeping good health due to its anti-fatigue and immunomodulating activities. However, there is no data on Korean red ginseng for its preventive activity against acute respiratory illness (ARI). The study was conducted in a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial in healthy volunteers (Clinical Trial Number: NCT01478009). Our primary efficacy end point was the number of ARI reported and secondary efficacy end point was severity of symptoms, number of symptoms, and duration of ARI. A total of 100 volunteers were enrolled in the study. Fewer subjects in the KRG group reported contracting at least 1 ARI than in the placebo group (12 [24.5%] vs 22 [44.9%], P = 0.034), the difference was statistically significant between the two groups. The symptom duration of the subjects who experienced the ARI, was similar between the two groups (KRG vs placebo; 5.2 ± 2.3 vs 6.3 ± 5.0, P = 0.475). The symptom scores were low tendency in KRG group (KRG vs placebo; 9.5 ± 4.5 vs 17.6 ± 23.1, P = 0.241). The study suggests that KRG may be effective in protecting subjects from contracting ARI, and may have the tendency to decrease the duration and scores of ARI symptoms.

Red ginseng marc oil inhibits iNOS and COX-2 via NFκB and p38 pathways in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages

In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of red ginseng marc oil (RMO) in the RAW 264.7 macrophage cell line. RMO was prepared by a supercritical CO₂ extraction of waste product generated after hot water extraction of red ginseng. RMO significantly inhibited the production of oxidative stress molecules such as nitric oxide and reactive oxygen species in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated RAW 264.7 cells. Levels of inflammatory targets including prostaglandin E2, tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6 were also reduced after the treatment with RMO. In addition, RMO diminished the expressions of inducible nitric oxide synthase and cyclooxygenase 2 at both mRNA and protein levels. Blockade of nuclear translocation of the p65 subunit of nuclear factor κB (NFκB) was also observed after the treatment of RMO. Furthermore, RMO decreased the phosphorylations of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and its upstream kinases including MAPK kinases 3/6 (MKK3/6) and TAK 1 (TGF-β activated kinase 1). Gas chromatographic analysis on RMO revealed that RMO contained about 10% phytosterols including sitosterol, stigmasterol and campesterol which may contribute to the anti-inflammatory properties of RMO. Taken together, these results suggest that the anti-inflammatory effect of RMO in LPS-induced RAW 264.7 macrophages could be associated with the inhibition of NFκB transcriptional activity, possibly via blocking the p38 MAPK pathway.