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Deep A, Grakh K, Vaishali, Kumar M, Gupta R, Mittal D, Kumar R, Jindal N. Molecular epidemiology, antibiogram profile and risk factor analysis of pathogenic Escherichia coli associated with pre-weaning diarrhoea in piglets from Haryana, India. J Infect Public Health 2023; 16:1793-1801. [PMID: 37738695 DOI: 10.1016/j.jiph.2023.08.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2023] [Revised: 06/29/2023] [Accepted: 08/23/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Piglet diarrhoea is a multifactorial disease with serious implications for the swine industry worldwide, including India. The Escherichia coli (E. coli) pathotypes, i.e., enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) and Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) are among the major bacterial agents attributed as causative agent for piglet diarrhoea, but studies related to genetic diversity, antibiogram profile and their correlation with risk factors of these pathogens are sparse. MATERIAL AND METHODS A total of 104 faecal swab samples were collected from 32 different piggery units of Haryana, India and confirmed as E. coli by standard microbiological methods. The identified E. coli were characterized as ETEC and/or STEC using PCR assays and were studied for their genetic diversity by phylogenetic analysis of the sequences. All the isolates were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility testing. Further, the correlation of variables with presence or absence of ETEC and/or STEC was also investigated by using Fisher's exact test. RESULTS Microbiological isolation led to identification of 208 E. coli isolates. A total of 17.3% (31/208) isolates were characterized as ETEC and 4.8% (10/208) isolates as STEC, whereas 2.4% (5/208) isolates exhibited both ETEC and STEC pathotype. Of the total studied piggery units (n = 32), ETEC were isolated from fourteen and both ETEC and STEC from eight farms. The phylogenetic analysis of Stx2 gene revealed 100% homology with Stx2eA variant from Germany, while analysis of STII gene revealed a distinct nucleotide and amino acid substitution when compared with standard strains. The antibiotic susceptibility testing revealed maximum resistance to moxifloxacin (71.9%) followed by tetracycline (58.1%) and amoxicillin with a total of 41.8% (87/208) E. coli isolates designated as multi-drug resistant (MDR). The multiple antibiotic resistance index varied from 0.05 to 0.75. The statistical analysis suggested three factors viz., number of farm worker(s), frequency of using disinfectant for floor cleaning and use of antibiotic in feed as risk factors significantly associated (p < 0.05) with ETEC associated diarrhoea at piggeries under study. CONCLUSION Current study warrants a need for systematic studies on the ETEC/STEC associated diarrhea and antibiotic resistance among these isolates to understand the mechanisms of origin and dissemination of drug resistant pathogens and to design suitable prevention and control measures to curb emergence of antibiotic resistance in the farm settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aman Deep
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar 125004, India
| | - Kushal Grakh
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar 125004, India
| | - Vaishali
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar 125004, India
| | - Manesh Kumar
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar 125004, India
| | - Renu Gupta
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar 125004, India
| | - Dinesh Mittal
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar 125004, India
| | - Ramesh Kumar
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar 125004, India
| | - Naresh Jindal
- Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Lala Lajpat Rai University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Hisar 125004, India.
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Barros MM, Castro J, Araújo D, Campos AM, Oliveira R, Silva S, Outor-Monteiro D, Almeida C. Swine Colibacillosis: Global Epidemiologic and Antimicrobial Scenario. Antibiotics (Basel) 2023; 12:antibiotics12040682. [PMID: 37107044 PMCID: PMC10135039 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics12040682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Swine pathogenic infection caused by Escherichia coli, known as swine colibacillosis, represents an epidemiological challenge not only for animal husbandry but also for health authorities. To note, virulent E. coli strains might be transmitted, and also cause disease, in humans. In the last decades, diverse successful multidrug-resistant strains have been detected, mainly due to the growing selective pressure of antibiotic use, in which animal practices have played a relevant role. In fact, according to the different features and particular virulence factor combination, there are four different pathotypes of E. coli that can cause illness in swine: enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC), Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) that comprises edema disease E. coli (EDEC) and enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC), and extraintestinal pathogenic E. coli (ExPEC). Nevertheless, the most relevant pathotype in a colibacillosis scenario is ETEC, responsible for neonatal and postweaning diarrhea (PWD), in which some ETEC strains present enhanced fitness and pathogenicity. To explore the distribution of pathogenic ETEC in swine farms and their diversity, resistance, and virulence profiles, this review summarizes the most relevant works on these subjects over the past 10 years and discusses the importance of these bacteria as zoonotic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Margarida Barros
- I.P—National Institute for Agrarian and Veterinariay Research (INIAV), Rua dos Lagidos, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal; (M.M.B.); (J.C.); (D.A.); (A.M.C.); (R.O.); (S.S.)
- Veterinary and Animal Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
| | - Joana Castro
- I.P—National Institute for Agrarian and Veterinariay Research (INIAV), Rua dos Lagidos, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal; (M.M.B.); (J.C.); (D.A.); (A.M.C.); (R.O.); (S.S.)
| | - Daniela Araújo
- I.P—National Institute for Agrarian and Veterinariay Research (INIAV), Rua dos Lagidos, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal; (M.M.B.); (J.C.); (D.A.); (A.M.C.); (R.O.); (S.S.)
| | - Ana Maria Campos
- I.P—National Institute for Agrarian and Veterinariay Research (INIAV), Rua dos Lagidos, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal; (M.M.B.); (J.C.); (D.A.); (A.M.C.); (R.O.); (S.S.)
| | - Ricardo Oliveira
- I.P—National Institute for Agrarian and Veterinariay Research (INIAV), Rua dos Lagidos, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal; (M.M.B.); (J.C.); (D.A.); (A.M.C.); (R.O.); (S.S.)
- LEPABE—Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
| | - Sónia Silva
- I.P—National Institute for Agrarian and Veterinariay Research (INIAV), Rua dos Lagidos, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal; (M.M.B.); (J.C.); (D.A.); (A.M.C.); (R.O.); (S.S.)
- Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
| | - Divanildo Outor-Monteiro
- Veterinary and Animal Research Centre (CECAV), University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, 5000-801 Vila Real, Portugal;
| | - Carina Almeida
- I.P—National Institute for Agrarian and Veterinariay Research (INIAV), Rua dos Lagidos, 4485-655 Vila do Conde, Portugal; (M.M.B.); (J.C.); (D.A.); (A.M.C.); (R.O.); (S.S.)
- LEPABE—Laboratory for Process Engineering, Environment, Biotechnology and Energy, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- ALiCE—Associate Laboratory in Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Roberto Frias, 4200-465 Porto, Portugal
- Centre of Biological Engineering, University of Minho, 4710-057 Braga, Portugal
- Correspondence:
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Do KH, Seo K, Jung M, Lee WK, Lee WK. Comparative Genetic Characterization of Pathogenic Escherichia coli Isolated from Patients and Swine Suffering from Diarrhea in Korea. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:ani13071154. [PMID: 37048407 PMCID: PMC10093510 DOI: 10.3390/ani13071154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare the virulence factors and antimicrobial resistance of the most common pathogenic Escherichia coli strains in swine and patients with diarrhea in Korea. We examined virulence genes and antimicrobial susceptibility in 85 and 61 E. coli strains isolated from swine and patients with diarrhea, respectively. The most prevalent pathogen in swine was enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) (47.1%), followed by Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) (32.9%). Similarly, the majority of the patient isolates (50.8%) were proven to be STEC, the most common pathotype, followed by ETEC (23.0%). We found that swine isolates had significantly higher resistance than patient isolates, especially to fluoroquinolones (ciprofloxacin: 37.5% and 16.1%; norfloxacin: 29.7% and 16.1%, respectively). Additionally, sequence type (ST) 100 (swine: 21; patients: 4), ST 1 (swine: 21, patients: 2), ST 10 (swine: 8; patients: 6), ST 641 (swine: 3, patients: 2), and ST 88 (swine: 2, patients: 11) were detected in both swine and humans. In addition, we confirmed that isolates from swine and patients had similar virulence traits and were phylogenetically similar. According to these findings, swine and humans are susceptible to cross infection and the transfer of antimicrobial resistance.
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Neomycin resistance in clinical Escherichia coli from Danish weaner pigs is associated with recent neomycin use and presence of F4 or F18 fimbriaes. Prev Vet Med 2023; 212:105852. [PMID: 36689897 DOI: 10.1016/j.prevetmed.2023.105852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Neomycin is a first-choice antibiotic for treatment of porcine enteritis caused by enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC), but little is known about factors influencing resistance to this drug. The aims of this study were to assess antimicrobial resistance and virulence in 325 E. coli isolates obtained in 2020 from various infections in pigs, and to identify factors associated with neomycin resistance development. Susceptibility to 16 antimicrobial agents was determined by broth microdilution, and occurrence of ETEC-associated virulence factors was screened by PCR and hemolysis on blood agar. Univariate and multivariate logistic regression analyses were performed to determine if age group, virulence factors, or antibiotic use (neomycin and other antibiotics) were associated with neomycin resistance. STa, STb, LT, F4, and F18 were detected in 14%, 37%, 26%, 21% and 23% of the isolates, respectively. Resistance was low for antimicrobials of high public health importance (1.5% for cefotaxime, 1% for colistin and no fluoroquinolone resistance) but high for drugs used for treatment of ETEC enteritis (e.g. 20% for neomycin). Isolates with the ETEC pathotype were significantly associated with the weaner age group and intestinal/fecal origin. Multivariate analysis showed that recent neomycin use and presence of F4 or F18 were significantly associated with neomycin resistance amongst isolates from weaners. These results prove an association between neomycin resistance and use at the farm level. Further research is warranted to determine why neomycin resistance was associated with F4 and F18, and whether neomycin use may co-select for virulent strains.
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Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence Factors Assessment in Escherichia coli Isolated from Swine in Italy from 2017 to 2021. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12010112. [PMID: 36678460 PMCID: PMC9863947 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12010112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/06/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Prudent antibiotic use in pigs is critical to ensuring animal health and preventing the development of critical resistance. We evaluated the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) pattern in commensal and enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) isolates obtained in 2017−2021 from pigs suffering from enteric disorders. Overall, the selected 826 E. coli isolates showed the highest level of resistance to ampicillin (95.9%), tetracycline (89.7%), cefazolin (79.3%), and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (74.8%). The resistance rates of the isolates to ampicillin increased (p < 0.05), reaching 99.2% of resistant strains in 2021. Regarding isolates harboring virulence genes, ETEC F18+ were significantly more resistant to florfenicol, gentamicin, kanamycin, and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole than ETEC F4+ strains. E. coli lacking virulence factor genes were more resistant to amoxicillin with clavulanic acid and cefazolin, but less resistant to gentamicin (p < 0.01) than isolates harboring virulence factors. Throughout the study period, a significant number of ETEC F18+ isolates developed resistance to florfenicol, gentamicin, and kanamycin. Finally, ETEC 18+ significantly (p < 0.05) increased resistance to all the tested antibiotics. In conclusion, AMR varied for E. coli over time and showed high levels for molecules widely administered in the swine industry, emphasizing the need for continuous surveillance. The observed differences in AMR between commensal and ETEC isolates may lead to the hypothesis that plasmids carrying virulence genes are also responsible for AMR in E. coli, suggesting more research on genetic variation between pathogenic and nonpathogenic E. coli.
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Song HJ, Moon DC, Kim SJ, Mechesso AF, Choi JH, Boby N, Kang HY, Na SH, Yoon SS, Lim SK. Antimicrobial Resistance Profiles and Molecular Characteristics of Extended-Spectrum β-Lactamase-Producing Escherichia coli Isolated from Healthy Cattle and Pigs in Korea. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2023; 20:7-16. [PMID: 36577050 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2022.0051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial-resistant bacteria isolated from food animals pose a major health threat to the public on this planet. This study aimed to determine the susceptibility profiles of Escherichia coli isolated from cattle and pig fecal samples and investigate the molecular characteristics of extended-spectrum β-lactamase (ESBL)-producing E. coli using gene identification, conjugation, and Southern blot approach. Overall 293 E. coli were recovered from cattle (120 isolates) and pigs (173 isolates) in 7 provinces of Korea during 2017-2018. Ampicillin, chloramphenicol, streptomycin, and sulfisoxazole resistance rates were the highest in pigs' isolates (>60%, p ≤ 0.001) compared to that in cattle (3-39%). Multidrug resistance (MDR) was higher in pig isolates (73%) than in cattle (31%), and the MDR profile usually includes streptomycin, sulfisoxazole, and tetracycline. Resistance to critically important antimicrobials such as ceftiofur, colistin, and ciprofloxacin was higher in weaners than those from finishers in pigs. The qnrS gene was detected in 13% of the pig isolates. Eight isolates from pigs and one isolate from cattle were identified as ESBL-producers and ESBL genes belonged to blaCTX-M-55 (n = 4), blaCTX-M-14 (n = 3), and blaCTX-M-65 (n = 2). Notably, the blaCTX-M-65 and qnrS1 genes were found to be carried together in an identical plasmid (IncHI2) in two isolates from finisher pigs. The blaCTX-M-carrying isolates belonged to phylogenetic groups B1 (n = 4), B2 (n = 2), A (n = 2), and D (n = 1). The blaCTX-M genes and non-β-lactam resistance traits were transferred to the E. coli J53 recipient from seven blaCTX-M-positive strains isolated from pigs. The blaCTX-M genes belonged to the IncI1α, IncFII, and IncHI2 plasmids and are also associated with the ISEcp1, IS26, IS903, and orf477 elements. These findings suggested the possibility of blaCTX-M-carrying E. coli transmission to humans through direct contact with cattle and pigs or contamination of food products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun-Ju Song
- Bacterial Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong Chan Moon
- Bacterial Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Republic of Korea.,Division of Antimicrobial Resistance, Centre for Infectious Diseases Research, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cheongju, South Korea
| | - Su-Jeong Kim
- Bacterial Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Abraham Fikru Mechesso
- Bacterial Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Republic of Korea.,Department of Pathology and Microbiology, College of Medicine, University of Nebraska Medical Center, Omaha, Nebraska, USA
| | - Ji-Hyun Choi
- Bacterial Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Naila Boby
- Bacterial Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Young Kang
- Division of Antimicrobial Resistance, Centre for Infectious Diseases Research, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cheongju, South Korea
| | - Seok-Hyeon Na
- Division of Antimicrobial Resistance, Centre for Infectious Diseases Research, Korea Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Cheongju, South Korea
| | - Soon-Seek Yoon
- Bacterial Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Republic of Korea
| | - Suk-Kyung Lim
- Bacterial Disease Division, Animal and Plant Quarantine Agency, Gimcheon-si, Republic of Korea
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Do KH, Seo K, Lee WK. Antimicrobial resistance, virulence genes, and phylogenetic characteristics of pathogenic Escherichia coli isolated from patients and swine suffering from diarrhea. BMC Microbiol 2022; 22:199. [PMID: 35974313 PMCID: PMC9380393 DOI: 10.1186/s12866-022-02604-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Escherichia (E.) coli causes colibacillosis in swine and humans, and is frequently associated with antimicrobial resistance. In this study we aimed to compare antimicrobial resistance, O-serogroups, virulence genes, and multi-locus sequence type of E. coli between isolates from pigs and patients suffering from diarrhea, and the most prevalent pathogenic E. coli strain from swine isolates in Korea. Methods We tested 64 and 50 E. coli strains from pigs and patients suffering from diarrhea for antimicrobial susceptibility test, virulence genes, O-serogroups, and multi-locus sequence typing. Results We confirmed that isolates from swine showed significantly higher resistance than from those from patients, especially to fluoroquinolone (ciprofloxacin: 37.5 and 10.0%; norfloxacin: 29.7 and 8.0%, respectively). Stx1 (46.0%) was most frequently detected in patients followed by stx2 (38.0%). There was no significant difference in stx2 (swine: 23.4%, patients: 38.0%). In isolates from patients, O157 (12.0%) was the most prevalent O-serogroup, and two isolates (3.1%) from pigs were confirmed to have O157. Additionally, sequence type (ST) 10 (swine: 6 isolates, patients: 2 isolates) and ST 88 (swine: 2 isolates, patients: 1 isolate) were simultaneously detected. Conclusions We found that both isolates from swine and human had the stx2 gene, which could cause severe disease. Moreover, antimicrobial resistance was significantly higher in pigs than in patients. These results suggest that pig could act as a reservoir in human infection and antimicrobial resistance could be transferred to human from pigs. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12866-022-02604-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyung-Hyo Do
- Veterinary Medical Center and College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwangwon Seo
- Veterinary Medical Center and College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea
| | - Wan-Kyu Lee
- Veterinary Medical Center and College of Veterinary Medicine, Chungbuk National University, Cheongju, 28644, Republic of Korea.
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Dimitrova L, Kaleva M, Zaharieva MM, Stoykova C, Tsvetkova I, Angelovska M, Ilieva Y, Kussovski V, Naydenska S, Najdenski H. Prevalence of Antibiotic-Resistant Escherichia coli Isolated from Swine Faeces and Lagoons in Bulgaria. Antibiotics (Basel) 2021; 10:antibiotics10080940. [PMID: 34438990 PMCID: PMC8388900 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics10080940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a worldwide health problem affecting humans, animals, and the environment within the framework of the “One Health” concept. The aim of our study was to evaluate the prevalence of pathogenic strains of the species Escherichia coli (E. coli), their AMR profile, and biofilm-forming potential. The isolated strains from three swine faeces and free lagoons (ISO 16654:2001/Amd 1:2017) were confirmed using Phoenix M50 and 16S rDNA PCR. The antibiotic sensitivity to 34 clinically applied antibiotics was determined by Phoenix M50 and the disc diffusion method, according to the protocols of the CLSI and EUCAST. We confirmed the presence of 16 E. coli isolates, of which 87.5% were multi-drug-resistant and 31.25% performed strong biofilms. The possibility for the carrying and transmission of antibiotic-resistance genes to quinolones (qnr), aminoglycosides (aac(3)), β-lactamase-producing plasmid genes ampC, and blaSHV/blaTEM was investigated. We confirmed the carrying of blaSHV/blaTEM in one and ampC in seven isolates. The strains were negative for the virulence genes (ETEC (LT, STa, and F4), EPEC (eae), and STEC/VTEC (stx and stx2all)). The results should contribute to the development of effective measures for limitation and control on the use of antibiotics, which is a key point in the WHO action plan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyudmila Dimitrova
- The Stephan Angeloff Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 26 Akad. G. Bonchev Str., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.K.); (M.M.Z.); (C.S.); (I.T.); (M.A.); (Y.I.); (V.K.); (H.N.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +359-2979-3161
| | - Mila Kaleva
- The Stephan Angeloff Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 26 Akad. G. Bonchev Str., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.K.); (M.M.Z.); (C.S.); (I.T.); (M.A.); (Y.I.); (V.K.); (H.N.)
| | - Maya M. Zaharieva
- The Stephan Angeloff Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 26 Akad. G. Bonchev Str., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.K.); (M.M.Z.); (C.S.); (I.T.); (M.A.); (Y.I.); (V.K.); (H.N.)
| | - Christina Stoykova
- The Stephan Angeloff Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 26 Akad. G. Bonchev Str., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.K.); (M.M.Z.); (C.S.); (I.T.); (M.A.); (Y.I.); (V.K.); (H.N.)
| | - Iva Tsvetkova
- The Stephan Angeloff Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 26 Akad. G. Bonchev Str., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.K.); (M.M.Z.); (C.S.); (I.T.); (M.A.); (Y.I.); (V.K.); (H.N.)
| | - Maya Angelovska
- The Stephan Angeloff Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 26 Akad. G. Bonchev Str., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.K.); (M.M.Z.); (C.S.); (I.T.); (M.A.); (Y.I.); (V.K.); (H.N.)
| | - Yana Ilieva
- The Stephan Angeloff Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 26 Akad. G. Bonchev Str., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.K.); (M.M.Z.); (C.S.); (I.T.); (M.A.); (Y.I.); (V.K.); (H.N.)
| | - Vesselin Kussovski
- The Stephan Angeloff Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 26 Akad. G. Bonchev Str., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.K.); (M.M.Z.); (C.S.); (I.T.); (M.A.); (Y.I.); (V.K.); (H.N.)
| | - Sevda Naydenska
- University Multiprofile Hospital for Active Treatment Alexandrovska, Medical University, 1 Georgy Sofiiski Str., 1431 Sofia, Bulgaria;
| | - Hristo Najdenski
- The Stephan Angeloff Institute of Microbiology, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, 26 Akad. G. Bonchev Str., 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria; (M.K.); (M.M.Z.); (C.S.); (I.T.); (M.A.); (Y.I.); (V.K.); (H.N.)
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