Technical requirements for cultured meat production: a review

Biopreservation strategies using bacteriocins to control meat spoilage and foodborne outbreaks

Fresh meat is highly perishable, presenting challenges in spoilage mitigation and waste reduction globally. Despite the efforts, foodborne outbreaks from meat consumption persist. Biopreservation offers a natural solution to extend shelf life by managing microbial communities. However, challenges include the effective diffusion of bacteriocins through the meat matrix and the potential inhibition of starter cultures by bacteriocins targeting closely related lactic acid bacteria (LAB). LAB, predominant in meat, produce bacteriocins - small, stable peptides with broad antimicrobial properties effective across varying pH and temperature conditions. This review highlights the recent advances in the optimization of bacteriocin use, considering its structure and mode of action. Moreover, the strengths and weaknesses of different techniques for bacteriocin screening, including novel bioengineering methods, are described. Finally, we discuss the advantages and limitations of the modes of application of bacteriocins toward the preservation of fresh, cured, and novel meat products.

Responsible innovation: Mitigating the food safety aspects of cultured meat production

There is much interest in cultured (cultivated) meat as a potential solution to concerns over the ecological and environmental footprint of food production, especially from animal-derived food products. The aim of this critical review is to undertake a structured analysis of existing literature to (i) identify the range of materials that could be used within the cultured meat process; (ii) explore the potential biological and chemical food safety issues that arise; (iii) identify the known and also novel aspects of the food safety hazard portfolio that will inform hazard analysis and risk assessment approaches, and (iv) position a responsible innovation framework that can be utilized to mitigate food safety concerns with specific emphasis on cultured meat. Although a number of potential food safety hazards are identified that need to be considered within a food safety plan, further research is required to validate and verify that these food safety hazards have been suitably controlled and, where possible, eliminated. The responsible innovation framework developed herein, which extends beyond hazard analysis and traditional risk assessment approaches, can be applied in multiple contexts, including this use case of cultured meat production.

Smart proteins as a new paradigm for meeting dietary protein sufficiency of India: a critical review on the safety and sustainability of different protein sources

India, a global leader in agriculture, faces sustainability challenges in feeding its population. Although primarily a vegetarian population, the consumption of animal derived proteins has tremendously increased in recent years. Excessive dependency on animal proteins is not environmentally sustainable, necessitating the identification of alternative smart proteins. Smart proteins are environmentally benign and mimic the properties of animal proteins (dairy, egg and meat) and are derived from plant proteins, microbial fermentation, insects and cell culture meat (CCM) processes. This review critically evaluates the technological, safety, and sustainability challenges involved in production of smart proteins and their consumer acceptance from Indian context. Under current circumstances, plant-based proteins are most favorable; however, limited land availability and impending climate change makes them unsustainable in the long run. CCM is unaffordable with high input costs limiting its commercialization in near future. Microbial-derived proteins could be the most sustainable option for future owing to higher productivity and ability to grow on low-cost substrates. A circular economy approach integrating agri-horti waste valorization and C1 substrate synthesis with microbial biomass production offer economic viability. Considering the use of novel additives and processing techniques, evaluation of safety, allergenicity, and bioavailability of smart protein products is necessary before large-scale adoption.

Industrial Research and Development on the Production Process and Quality of Cultured Meat Hold Significant Value: A Review

Cultured meat has been gaining popularity as a solution to the increasing problem of food insecurity. Although research on cultured meat started later compared to other alternative meats, the industry is growing rapidly every year, with developed products evaluated as being most similar to conventional meat. Studies on cultured meat production techniques, such as culturing new animal cells and developing medium sera and scaffolds, are being conducted intensively and diversely. However, active in-depth research on the quality characteristics of cultured meat, including studies on the sensory and storage properties that directly influence consumer preferences, is still lacking. Additionally, studies on the combination or ratio of fat cells to muscle cells and on the improvement of microbiota, protein degradation, and fatty acid degradation remain to be conducted. By actively investigating these research topics, we aim to verify the quality and safety of cultured meats, ultimately improving the consumer preference for cultured meat products.

Cultured meat in the European Union: Legislative context and food safety issues

The current food system, which is responsible for about one third of all global gas emissions, is considered one of the main causes of resource depletion. For this reason, scientific research is investigating new alternatives capable of feeding an ever-growing population that is set to reach 9-11 billion by 2050. Among these, cell-based meat, also called cultured meat, is one possible solution. It is part of a larger branch of science called cellular agriculture, whose goal is to produce food from individual cells rather than whole organisms, tracing their molecular profile. To date, however, cultured meat aroused conflicting opinions. For this reason, the aim of this review was to take an in-depth look at the current European legislative framework, which reflects a 'precautionary approach' based on the assumption that these innovative foods require careful risk assessment to safeguard consumer health. In this context, the assessment of possible risks made it possible not only to identify the main critical points during each stage of the production chain (proliferation, differentiation, scaffolding, maturation and marketing), but also to identify solutions in accordance with the recommendations of the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Further, the main challenges related to organoleptic and nutritional properties have been reviewed.. Finally, possible future markets were studied, which would complement that of traditional meat, implementing the offer for the consumer, who is still sceptical about the acceptance of this new product. Although further investigation is needed, the growing demand for market diversification and the food security opportunities associated with food shortages, as well as justifying the commercialisation of cultured meat, would present an opportunity to position cultured meat as beneficial.

Effect of Crude Polysaccharides from Ecklonia cava Hydrolysate on Cell Proliferation and Differentiation of Hanwoo Muscle Stem Cells for Cultured Meat Production

Ecklonia cava, a brown seaweed native to the East Asian coast, is known for its unique composition, including polysaccharides, polyphenols, and phlorotannins. Fucoidan is a sulfated polysaccharide widely used as a functional ingredient in foods. This study obtained crude polysaccharides (ECC_CPS) from E. cava celluclast enzymatic hydrolysate using ethanol precipitation. ECC_CPS increased cell viability during the proliferation of Hanwoo muscle satellite cells (HMSCs). The effect of ECC_CPS on the expression of proliferation-related markers was confirmed as MYF5 and MYOD expression significantly increased, whereas PAX7 expression was maintained. The evaluation of cell migration activity has a major impact on cell proliferation and differentiation, and the cell migration index significantly increased with ECC_CPS treatment (p < 0.01). This was related to the HGF/MET pathway and FAK pathway. Treatment with ECC_CPS promoted differentiation at the cell differentiation stage, thereby increasing the expression of differentiation markers, such as MYH2, MYH7, and MYOG (p < 0.001 or p < 0.01). Therefore, our findings imply that crude polysaccharide obtained from E. cava can be an additive ingredient that enhances the proliferation and differentiation of muscle satellite cells used in the manufacture of cultured meat products.

Unlocking the potential of stem cells: Their crucial role in the production of cultivated meat

Cellular agriculture is an emerging research field of agribiotechnology that aims to produce agricultural products using stem cells, without sacrificing animals or cultivating crops. Cultivated meat, as a representative cellular product of cellular agriculture, is being actively researched due to global food insecurity, environmental, and ethical concerns. This review focuses on the application of stem cells, which are the seeds of cellular agriculture, for the production of cultivated meat, with emphasis on deriving and culturing muscle and adipose stem cells for imitating fresh meat. Establishing standards and safety regulations for culturing stem cells is crucial for the market entry of cultured muscle tissue-based biomaterials. Understanding stem cells is a prerequisite for creating reliable cultivated meat and other cellular agricultural biomaterials. The techniques and regulations from the cultivated meat industry could pave the way for new cellular agriculture industries in the future.

Effect of p38 inhibitor on the proliferation of chicken muscle stem cells and differentiation into muscle and fat

OBJECTIVE

Inhibiting the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway delays differentiation and increases proliferation of muscle stem cells in most species. Here, we aimed to investigate the effect of p38 inhibitor (p38i) treatment on the proliferation and differentiation of chicken muscle stem cells.

METHODS

Chicken muscle stem cells were collected from the muscle tissues of Hy-line Brown chicken embryos at embryonic day 18, then isolated by the preplating method. Cells were cultured for 4 days in growth medium supplemented with dimethyl sulfoxide or 1, 10, 20 μM of p38i, then subcultured for up to 4 passages. Differentiation was induced for 3 days with differentiation medium. Each treatment was replicated 3 times.

RESULTS

The proliferation and mRNA expression of paired box 7 gene and myogenic factor 5 gene, as well as the mRNA expression of myogenic differentiation marker gene myogenin were significantly higher in p38i-treated cultures than in control (p<0.05), but immunofluorescence staining and mRNA expression of myosin heavy chain (MHC) were not significantly different between the two groups. Oil red O staining of accumulated lipid droplets in differentiated cell cultures revealed a higher lipid density in p38i-treated cultures than in control; however, the expression of the adipogenic marker gene peroxisome proliferator activated receptor gamma was not significantly different between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

p38 inhibition in chicken muscle stem cells improves cell proliferation, but the effects on myogenic differentiation and lipid accumulation require additional analysis. Further studies are needed on the chicken p38-MAPK pathway to understand the muscle and fat development mechanism.

One-Step Bioprinting of Multi-Channel Hydrogel Filaments Using Chaotic Advection: Fabrication of Pre-Vascularized Muscle-Like Tissues

The biofabrication of living constructs containing hollow channels is critical for manufacturing thick tissues. However, current technologies are limited in their effectiveness in the fabrication of channels with diameters smaller than hundreds of micrometers. It is demonstrated that the co-extrusion of cell-laden hydrogels and sacrificial materials through printheads containing Kenics static mixing elements enables the continuous and one-step fabrication of thin hydrogel filaments (1 mm in diameter) containing dozens of hollow microchannels with widths as small as a single cell. Pre-vascularized skeletal muscle-like filaments are bioprinted by loading murine myoblasts (C2C12 cells) in gelatin methacryloyl - alginate hydrogels and using hydroxyethyl cellulose as a sacrificial material. Higher viability and metabolic activity are observed in filaments with hollow multi-channels than in solid constructs. The presence of hollow channels promotes the expression of Ki67 (a proliferation biomarker), mitigates the expression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha , and markedly enhances cell alignment (i.e., 82% of muscle myofibrils aligned (in ±10°) to the main direction of the microchannels after seven days of culture). The emergence of sarcomeric α-actin is verified through immunofluorescence and gene expression. Overall, this work presents an effective and practical tool for the fabrication of pre-vascularized engineered tissues.

Technological and structural aspects of scaffold manufacturing for cultured meat: recent advances, challenges, and opportunities

In vitro cultured meat is an emerging area of research focus with an innovative approach through tissue engineering (i.e., cellular engineering) to meet the global food demand. The manufacturing of lab-cultivated meat is an innovative business that alleviates life-threatening environmental issues concerning public health and animal well-being on the global platform. There has been a noteworthy advancement in cultivating artificial meat, but still, there are numerous challenges that impede the swift headway of lab-grown meat production at a commercially large scale. In this review, we focus on the manufacturing of edible scaffolds for cultured meat production. In brief, first an introduction to cultivating artificial meat and its current scenario in the market is provided. Further, a discussion on the understanding of composition, cellular, and molecular communications in muscle tissue is presented, which are vital to scaling up the production of lab-grown meat. In continuation, the major components (e.g., cells, biomaterial scaffolds, and their manufacturing technologies, media, and potential bioreactors) for cultured meat production are conferred followed by a comprehensive discussion on the most recent advances in lab-cultured meat. Finally, existing challenges and opportunities including future research perspectives for scaling-up cultured meat production are discussed with conclusive interpretations.

Meat alternatives: A proofed commodity?

The demand for meat alternatives has been growing in the recent years and it is expected to keep expanding. Motives driving this growth are diverse and are mostly related to the health and ethical concerns over animal welfare and the possible impact of meat production on the environment. Meat alternatives are not anymore a niche market (i.e., vegetarians and vegans) but going mainstream (also consumed by meat eaters and flexitarians). This can be attributed to advances in formulations and ingredients and innovative technologies resulting in improved quality of products. This chapter summarizes the current knowledge about meat alternatives (from plant, fungi or/and algae). Plant-based alternatives are already a proofed commodity with a wide range of products available in the market. The search for more sustainable sources had put the spotlight on other sources such as fungi and algae due to their limited need to land, energy and water for biomass production. Fungi-based alternatives are steps ahead of those algae-based owing to fungi neutral flavor, comparable nutritional profile to meat and no need to masking agents. Consumer acceptance is still a key challenge boosting research and development efforts to ensure a better quality, affordability, and sustainability.

Scaffolding Biomaterials for 3D Cultivated Meat: Prospects and Challenges

Cultivating meat from stem cells rather than by raising animals is a promising solution to concerns about the negative externalities of meat production. For cultivated meat to fully mimic conventional meat's organoleptic and nutritional properties, innovations in scaffolding technology are required. Many scaffolding technologies are already developed for use in biomedical tissue engineering. However, cultivated meat production comes with a unique set of constraints related to the scale and cost of production as well as the necessary attributes of the final product, such as texture and food safety. This review discusses the properties of vertebrate skeletal muscle that will need to be replicated in a successful product and the current state of scaffolding innovation within the cultivated meat industry, highlighting promising scaffold materials and techniques that can be applied to cultivated meat development. Recommendations are provided for future research into scaffolds capable of supporting the growth of high-quality meat while minimizing production costs. Although the development of appropriate scaffolds for cultivated meat is challenging, it is also tractable and provides novel opportunities to customize meat properties.