Body composition and venison quality of farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus) hinds reared on grass, papilionaceous or mixed pasture paddocks

The effect of age and sex on carcass traits and body composition of Hungarian yearling farmed red deer (Cervus elaphus hippelaphus)

Carcass characteristics were studied in 80 young Hungarian red deer in different ages (12, 15, 18 and 20 months of age). In all age group 10 male and 10 female were slaughtered. The dressed carcass weight in skin varied between 53.72 and 65.66% of live weight. The first class lean meat varied between 14.3 and 16.6% of live weight. The live weight, carcass weight increased with the age and differed also between sexes. The highest dressing percentages were found at 20 months of age in both sexes (♂: 65.7%, ♀: 62.5%). Mainly the hinds had higher loin, leg and shoulder proportions of carcass at 20 months of age than the stags. The carcass muscle, bone and fat content were measured by computer tomography. These traits were grown and their proportion changed with the age. The bone to muscle ratio gradually decreased with the age while the fat to muscle ratio increased after 15 months of age (♂: from 0.13 to 0.17, ♀: from 0.15 to 0.18). At 18 month of age the hinds had higher bone to muscle and fat to muscle ratio than the stags'. The fat percentage of carcasses increased with the age in both sexes (♂: from 8.01% to 11.04%, ♀: from 8.40% to 11.28%). The hinds had higher values than the stags but it was significant just at 20 months of age. From the meat quality attributes there were found differences between ages in the case of pH, lightness, drip loss, cooking loss and shear force. The highest pH was found at 12 months of age in both sexes. There were found 5% intermediate pH (6.2 < pH < 5.8) at 12 and 15 months of age, all of them were male. The highest lightness values were observed at 18 months of age in both sexes (♂: 13.47, ♀: 14.90). There were differences between sexes in pH at all ages, except 15 months of age, and at 18 months of age in redness and lightness. Based on our results, the optimal slaughtering time for Hungarian red deer is 20 months of age, because this is when the dressing percentage is the best for both sexes. Meat quality traits changed with age, and gender differences sexes were the most pronounced for these traits at 18 months of age.

Comparison of Lipid Properties and Cadmium and Lead Content in Red Deer (Cervus elaphus) Meat from Three Feeding Grounds

Simple Summary

As a product originating from the most natural living conditions with free foraging, red deer (Cervus elaphus) meat is becoming increasingly popular among consumers. A greater supply of this type of meat can be ensured by dynamically developing red deer farming on permanent grasslands. The study presents a comparison of the properties of lipids and the content of cadmium and lead in the LL and SM muscles of red deer kept in forest, organic farm, and conventional farm feeding grounds. The greater species and phytoncide diversity in the organic feeding ground enriched the quantitative profile and significantly increased the content of beneficial polyunsaturated fatty acids (FAs) (CLA—conjugated linoleic acid, ALA—alpha-linolenic acid, AA—arachidonic acid, and EPA—eicosapentaenoic acid) and the sum of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), n-6 PUFA, and n-3 PUFA, in comparison with conventional farm and forest feeding grounds. It also contributed to a significantly lower n-6/n-3 ratio in both muscles. The study provides valuable data on the nutritional value and ecological safety of venison, which should be regarded as a health-enhancing food product. Furthermore, the present results can help breeders to make decisions about the locations of farms and the choice of red deer nutrition strategies.

Abstract

The aim of the study was to compare the properties of lipids and the content of cadmium and lead in the meat of red deer (Cervus elaphus) kept in a forest feeding ground (FFG) and on organic and conventional farms in Poland. Longissimus lumborum (LL) and Musculus semimembranosus (SM) muscles were collected for the study from 36 red deer carcasses in an equal sex and age ratio (3 and 4 years old). From April to October, the animals consumed only the vegetation growing in the feeding grounds. The floristic and phytoncide composition, as well as the fodder value, of the feeding grounds were assessed. Additionally, the intramuscular fat and cholesterol content, the profile, sum, and ratios of fatty acids (FAs), lipid nutraceutical parameters, and cadmium and lead content were determined in LL and SM. The plant composition comprised 116 species in the organic feeding ground (OFG) and 78 species in the conventional feeding ground (CFG). The LL and SM muscles of the red deer from the organic and forest feeding grounds exhibited significantly lower amounts of fat and cholesterol than those from the conventional system. The differences in the fatty acid composition between the three groups were quite small. Differences in intramuscular fat content contributed to a higher percentage of PUFAs in the FFG and OFG, in comparison to the CFG. In all types of feeding ground, the cadmium (0.002 to 0.008 mg/kg) and lead (0.009 to 0.019 mg/kg) content determined in the meat did not pose a threat to consumers.

European-native vocalizing: sex and age-class acoustic variation in the Central European red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Within-population acoustic variation of European red deer Cervus elaphus follows two empirically established common rules: Rule 1: suggesting similar-pitched stag and hind calls because of potential prevalence of natural over sexual selection on call pitch; and Rule 2: predicting lower-pitched calls in adults, because larger vocal folds normally produce lower-pitched calls in mammals. We found that both rules were supported for native Pannonian red deer from Central Europe. All fundamental frequency () parameter values of hind contact calls (for the exclusion of the beginning ) were indistinguishable from those of stag rutting roars. These results agree with published data on vocalization of male and female American and Asian wapiti Cervus canadensis. Calls of adults of either sex were lower in frequency than calf calls. These results disagree with data collected from adult and young American wapiti producing same-frequency calls, probably because of a distinctive mechanism of sound production (whistling).

Composition of Fatty Acids in Bone Marrow of Red Deer from Various Ecosystems and Different Categories

In this study, the influence of the living conditions of red deer (Cervus elaphus) fawns (wild vs. farmed) and effect of the category of free-living animals (fawns vs. does) on the fatty acid (FA) profile of the leg bone marrow was assessed. The composition of FAs in the deer bone marrow was determined by the gas chromatography method. In all groups, oleic acid (18:1 c9) was the most abundant in deer bone marrow and comprised of approximately 37% of total FAs. The bone marrow of young wild deer was characterized by a significantly (p < 0.001) higher fat content and saturated FAs proportion, while farmed fawns contained more moisture (p < 0.005) and fat-free dry matter (p < 0.001), as well as more monounsaturated FAs cis branched-chain FAs and monounsaturated FAs trans (p < 0.001). Although no significant (p > 0.05) differences were found between fawns, in terms of partial sums of PUFA, a significantly (p < 0.001) higher level of the sum of n-3 and n-6 FAs and more favorable n-6/n-3 ratio in the bone marrow of wild fawns were determined. In general, the legs of wild fawns were better prepared for wintering than farmed ones. In turn, comparing the category-related FAs composition in the bone marrow of free-living animals, a more favorable profile was observed in the adult (does) than in the young (fawns) animals, as the bone marrow of the wild does was characterized by significantly (p < 0.001) lower percentages of saturated FAs and a higher percentage of monounsaturated FAs cis.

Composition and Fatty Acid Profile of Bone Marrow in Farmed Fallow Deer (Dama dama) Depending on Diet

There are few studies on the composition of fatty acids and how they change the bone marrow fat of young animals depending on nutrition. Therefore, the proximate and fatty acid composition of metatarsal bone marrow from fawns of farm fallow deer after a summer of grazing and the winter feeding was compared. Due to the size and nature of the data, parametric or nonparametric tests were used. Fatty acid composition was determined by gas chromatographic analysis. After the winter feeding, bone marrow contained more fat (83.11% vs. 75.09%, p < 0.05) and less fat free dry matter (5.61% vs. 13.76%, p < 0.05) compared to the pasture period. Moreover, there was a significantly higher amount of saturated fatty acids (23.34% vs. 21.60%, p < 0.001), more trans fatty acids (2.99% vs. 2.34%, p < 0.005), and conjugated linoleic acid isomers (1.04% vs. 0.83%, p < 0.01), compared to post winter feeding, which in turn contained significantly more total cis-monounsaturated fatty acids (54.65% vs. 58.90%, p < 0.001). The percentage of polyunsaturated fatty acids (including n-3 and n-6) was not affected by feeding season. In conclusion, it was shown that young male farm fallow deer were better nourished after the winter period, during which they were kept in properly prepared rooms and fed fodder prepared by people.

Accumulation of Toxic Elements in Bone and Bone Marrow of Deer Living in Various Ecosystems. A Case Study of Farmed and Wild-Living Deer

The aim of the study was to determine the concentrations of toxic elements accumulated in the bone marrow and bones (Cervus elaphus). The studies were carried out on two groups of young stags: farmed (n = 6) and wild (n = 9). Their body weights were measured and bone and bone marrow samples were collected. The concentrations of toxic elements were analyzed using the inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry technique. The mean aluminum content in the bone marrow and bones of the farmed animals was significantly higher than in the wild group (p < 0.05). The mean concentration of arsenic, barium and lead in the bones of the wild red deer was significantly higher than in the bones of the farmed animals (p < 0.05), while the cadmium concentration in the bones of the farmed red deer exceeded the value determined in the wild animals. A significant difference was found between the mean concentrations of aluminum, arsenic, barium, lead, vanadium and nickel in the bone marrow and bones of both red deer groups (p < 0.05). Although the study involved animals living in an uncontaminated area, the concentrations of some heavy metals were higher than values reported from industrial regions.

Wildlife Ungulate Rescue and Emergency Services in the Pisa Area (Tuscany, Italy): Evaluation of a 9-Years Period (2010-2018)

Background: We analyzed the clinical data of wildlife ungulates admitted for emergency care to the Veterinary Teaching Hospital (VTH), Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Pisa over a 9-years period. Methods: Clinical data of all the wildlife ungulates admitted to the VTH were recorded. Blood samples were also taken from the animals for hematological and biochemical analysis. An assessment of ecto- and endoparasites was carried out, diagnostic imaging assessment was performed, and the outcomes were recorded. Results: Data concerning clinical parameters, blood work, parasitological analysis, and diagnostic imaging diagnosis were expressed as prevalence. Conclusion: The rescue and emergency treatments were related mostly to traumas caused by car accidents, followed by other causes. The traumatic injuries were mostly severe, characterized by multiple lesions involving hard and soft tissues. In this study, traffic accidents were the main cause of wildlife rescue and emergency management. This is probably due to the increased population of ungulates over the years, along with the considerable anthropization of the Pisa area.

Fatty Acid Composition of Meat and Edible Offal from Free-Living Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)

The objective of the study was to characterize tissue-associated differences in the fatty acid composition of fat in skeletal muscles M. longissimus dorsi (loin), M. biceps femoris (hind quarter), and M. triceps brachii (shoulder), and internal organs (i.e., liver, heart, and kidney) from free-living red deer (Cervus elaphus) females (n = 11) hunted in Lithuania. Skeletal muscles were characterized by lower content of free fat compared with the offal. The highest percentage of saturated fatty acids was found in the liver fat, whereas the lowest percentage was in the heart. Red deer offal showed significantly lower and higher proportions of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids compared to meat, respectively. Higher proportions of oleic fatty acid in the shoulder and hind quarter compared to the loin were the only significant differences between skeletal muscles. The lowest and the highest n-6 polyunsaturated/n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-6/n-3PUFA) ratio were found in the liver and heart, respectively. More favorable lower atherogenic index and higher hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio found in the offal showed their high nutritional value, however, higher peroxidizability index indicated higher susceptibility to lipid peroxidation compared to skeletal muscles.