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Campoccia D, Montanaro L, Arciola CR. Tracing the origins of extracellular DNA in bacterial biofilms: story of death and predation to community benefit. BIOFOULING 2021; 37:1022-1039. [PMID: 34823431 DOI: 10.1080/08927014.2021.2002987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 10/28/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Extracellular DNA (eDNA) is a macromolecule copiously found in various natural microenvironments, but its origin and significance still remain partly mysterious phenomena. Here, the multifaceted origins of eDNA in bacterial biofilms are explored. The release of eDNA can follow a suicidal programmed bacterial apoptosis or a fratricide-induced death, under the control of quorum sensing systems or triggered by specific stressors. eDNA can be released into the extracellular space or as a free macromolecule or enclosed within membrane vesicles or even through an explosion of bubbles. eDNA can also be derived from host tissue cells through bacterial cytolytic/proapoptotic toxins or stolen from neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs). eDNA can alternatively be produced by lysis-independent mechanisms. Sub-inhibitory doses of antibiotics, by killing a fraction of bacteria, result in stimulating the release of eDNA. Even phages appear to play a role in favoring eDNA release. Unveiling the origins of eDNA is critical to correctly address biofilm-associated infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Campoccia
- Laboratorio di Patologia delle Infezioni Associate all'Impianto, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
| | - Lucio Montanaro
- Laboratorio di Patologia delle Infezioni Associate all'Impianto, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Carla Renata Arciola
- Laboratorio di Patologia delle Infezioni Associate all'Impianto, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
- Laboratorio di Immunoreumatologia e Rigenerazione Tissutale, IRCCS Istituto Ortopedico Rizzoli, Bologna, Italy
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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Extracellular DNA (eDNA). A Major Ubiquitous Element of the Bacterial Biofilm Architecture. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22169100. [PMID: 34445806 PMCID: PMC8396552 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22169100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
After the first ancient studies on microbial slime (the name by which the biofilm matrix was initially indicated), multitudes of studies on the morphology, composition and physiology of biofilms have arisen. The emergence of the role that biofilms play in the pathogenesis of recalcitrant and persistent clinical infections, such as periprosthetic orthopedic infections, has reinforced scientific interest. Extracellular DNA (eDNA) is a recently uncovered component that is proving to be almost omnipresent in the extracellular polymeric substance (EPS) of biofilm. This macromolecule is eliciting unprecedented consideration for the critical impact on the pathogenesis of chronic clinical infections. After a systematic review of the literature, an updated description of eDNA in biofilms is presented, with a special focus on the latest findings regarding its fundamental structural role and the contribution it makes to the complex architecture of bacterial biofilms through interactions with a variety of other molecular components of the biofilm matrix.
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Skovdal SM, Hansen LK, Ivarsen DM, Zeng G, Büttner H, Rohde H, Jørgensen NP, Meyer RL. Host factors abolish the need for polysaccharides and extracellular matrix-binding protein in Staphylococcus epidermidis biofilm formation. J Med Microbiol 2021; 70:001287. [PMID: 33492206 PMCID: PMC8346721 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.001287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction. Staphylococcus epidermidis is predominant in implant-associated infections due to its capability to form biofilms. It can deploy several strategies for biofilm development using either polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA), extracellular DNA (eDNA) and/or proteins, such as the extracellular matrix-binding protein (Embp).Hypothesis/Gap Statement. We hypothesize that the dichotomic regulation of S. epidermidis adhesins is linked to whether it is inside a host or not, and that in vitro biofilm investigations in laboratory media may not reflect actual biofilms in vivo.Aim. We address the importance of PIA and Embp in biofilm grown in 'humanized' media to understand if these components play different roles in biofilm formation under conditions where bacteria can incorporate host proteins in the biofilm matrix.Methodology. S. epidermidis 1585 WT (deficient in icaADBC), and derivative strains that either lack embp, express embp from an inducible promotor, or express icaADBC from a plasmid, were cultivated in standard laboratory media, or in media with human plasma or serum. The amount, structure, elasticity and antimicrobial penetration of biofilms was quantified to describe structural differences caused by the different matrix components and growth conditions. Finally, we quantified the initiation of biofilms as suspended aggregates in response to host factors to determine how quickly the cells aggregate in response to the host environment and reach a size that protects them from phagocytosis.Results. S. epidermidis 1585 required polysaccharides to form biofilm in laboratory media. However, these observations were not representative of the biofilm phenotype in the presence of human plasma. If human plasma were present, polysaccharides and Embp were redundant for biofilm formation. Biofilms formed in human plasma were loosely attached and existed mostly as suspended aggregates. Aggregation occurred after 2 h of exposing cells to plasma or serum. Despite stark differences in the amount and composition of biofilms formed by polysaccharide-producing and Embp-producing strains in different media, there were no differences in vancomycin penetration or susceptibility.Conclusion. We suggest that the assumed importance of polysaccharides for biofilm formation is an artefact from studying biofilms in laboratory media void of human matrix components. The cell-cell aggregation of S. epidermidis can be activated by host factors without relying on either of the major adhesins, PIA and Embp, indicating a need to revisit the basic question of how S. epidermidis deploys self-produced and host-derived matrix components to form antibiotic-tolerant biofilms in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra M. Skovdal
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Infectious Diseases, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Medicine, Randers Regional Hospital, Randers, Denmark
| | - Liva Kjær Hansen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Faculty of Science and Technology, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Diana Malskær Ivarsen
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Faculty of Science and Technology, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Guanghong Zeng
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Faculty of Science and Technology, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Present address: Novo Nordisk A/S, Krogshøjvej 51, 2880 Bagsværd, Denmark
| | - Henning Büttner
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Holger Rohde
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Virology and Hygiene, Universitätsklinikum Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | | | - Rikke L. Meyer
- Interdisciplinary Nanoscience Center (iNANO), Faculty of Science and Technology, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Department of Bioscience, Faculty of Science and Technology, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
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Label-Free SERS Discrimination and In Situ Analysis of Life Cycle in Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus epidermidis. BIOSENSORS-BASEL 2018; 8:bios8040131. [PMID: 30558342 PMCID: PMC6315751 DOI: 10.3390/bios8040131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) has been proven suitable for identifying and characterizing different bacterial species, and to fully understand the chemically driven metabolic variations that occur during their evolution. In this study, SERS was exploited to identify the cellular composition of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria by using mesoporous silicon-based substrates decorated with silver nanoparticles. The main differences between the investigated bacterial strains reside in the structure of the cell walls and plasmatic membranes, as well as their biofilm matrix, as clearly noticed in the corresponding SERS spectrum. A complete characterization of the spectra was provided in order to understand the contribution of each vibrational signal collected from the bacterial culture at different times, allowing the analysis of the bacterial populations after 12, 24, and 48 h. The results show clear features in terms of vibrational bands in line with the bacterial growth curve, including an increasing intensity of the signals during the first 24 h and their subsequent decrease in the late stationary phase after 48 h of culture. The evolution of the bacterial culture was also confirmed by fluorescence microscope images.
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Campoccia D, Montanaro L, Ravaioli S, Cangini I, Testoni F, Visai L, Arciola CR. New Parameters to Quantitatively Express the Invasiveness of Bacterial Strains from Implant-Related Orthopaedic Infections into Osteoblast Cells. MATERIALS 2018; 11:ma11040550. [PMID: 29614037 PMCID: PMC5951434 DOI: 10.3390/ma11040550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2018] [Revised: 03/23/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Complete eradication of bacterial infections is often a challenging task, especially in presence of prosthetic devices. Invasion of non-phagocytic host cells appears to be a critical mechanism of microbial persistence in host tissues. Hidden within host cells, bacteria elude host defences and antibiotic treatments that are intracellularly inactive. The intracellular invasiveness of bacteria is generally measured by conventional gentamicin protection assays. The efficiency of invasion, however, markedly differs across bacterial species and adjustments to the titre of the microbial inocula used in the assays are often needed to enumerate intracellular bacteria. Such changes affect the standardisation of the method and hamper a direct comparison of bacteria on a same scale. This study aims at investigating the precise relation between inoculum, in terms of multiplicity of infection (MOI), and internalised bacteria. The investigation included nine Staphylococcus aureus, seven Staphylococcus epidermidis, five Staphylococcus lugdunensis and two Enterococcus faecalis clinical strains, which are co-cultured with MG63 human osteoblasts. Unprecedented insights are offered on the relations existing between MOI, number of internalised bacteria and per cent of internalised bacteria. New parameters are identified that are of potential use for qualifying the efficiency of internalization and compare the behaviour of bacterial strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Campoccia
- Research Unit on Implant Infections, Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute, 40136 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Lucio Montanaro
- Research Unit on Implant Infections, Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute, 40136 Bologna, Italy.
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Stefano Ravaioli
- Research Unit on Implant Infections, Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute, 40136 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Ilaria Cangini
- Research Unit on Implant Infections, Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute, 40136 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Francesca Testoni
- Research Unit on Implant Infections, Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute, 40136 Bologna, Italy.
| | - Livia Visai
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Center for Tissue Engineering (CIT), INSTM UdR of Pavia, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
- Department of Occupational Medicine, Ergonomy and Disability, Nanotechnology Laboratory, Salvatore Maugeri Foundation, 27100 Pavia, Italy.
| | - Carla Renata Arciola
- Research Unit on Implant Infections, Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute, 40136 Bologna, Italy.
- Department of Experimental, Diagnostic and Specialty Medicine, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy.
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Perez-Jorge C, Gomez-Barrena E, Horcajada JP, Puig-Verdie L, Esteban J. Drug treatments for prosthetic joint infections in the era of multidrug resistance. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2016; 17:1233-46. [PMID: 27054293 DOI: 10.1080/14656566.2016.1176142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Despite many advances, the management of prosthetic joint infection is still a complex issue. Moreover, in recent years the problem of antimicrobial resistance has emerged as an important challenge. AREAS COVERED We analysed recent advances in different aspects of prosthetic joint infections. The importance of biofilms needs to be considered for antibiotic selection because, when embedded in these structures, bacteria acquire resistant behaviour. Moreover, the presence of resistance mechanisms in some species of organisms increases the difficulty of management. In this sense, the growing importance of methicillin-resistant staphylococci, multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa is of increasing concern. Together with these organisms, others with constitutive resistance against most antibiotics (like Enterococcus sp., mycobacteria or fungi) represent a similar problem for selection of therapy. Research into new materials that can be used as drug carriers opens a new field for management of these infections and will likely come to the front line in the coming years. EXPERT OPINION Individualised therapies should carefully consider the aetiology, pathogenesis and antimicrobial susceptibility. Satisfactory clinical outcome could be further fostered by enhancing the multidisciplinary approach, with better collaboration in the antibiotic selection and the surgical management.
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Affiliation(s)
- Concepcion Perez-Jorge
- a Bone and Joint Infection Unit, Department of Clinical Microbiology , IIS-Fundacion Jimenez Diaz, UAM , Madrid , Spain
| | - Enrique Gomez-Barrena
- b Department of Orthopaedic Surgery , IdiPaz-Hospital La Paz Institute for Health Research, UAM , Madrid , Spain
| | - Juan-Pablo Horcajada
- c Service of Infectious Diseases, Hospital del Mar, CEXS Universitat Pompeu Fabra , Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques , Barcelona , Spain
| | - Lluis Puig-Verdie
- d Department of Orthopaedic Surgery , Hospital del Mar, Institut Hospital del Mar d'Investigacions Mèdiques , Barcelona , Spain
| | - Jaime Esteban
- a Bone and Joint Infection Unit, Department of Clinical Microbiology , IIS-Fundacion Jimenez Diaz, UAM , Madrid , Spain
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An Electrostatic Net Model for the Role of Extracellular DNA in Biofilm Formation by Staphylococcus aureus. J Bacteriol 2015; 197:3779-87. [PMID: 26416831 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00726-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 09/20/2015] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Staphylococcus aureus is an important human pathogen that can form biofilms on various surfaces. These cell communities are protected from the environment by a self-produced extracellular matrix composed of proteins, DNA, and polysaccharide. The exact compositions and roles of the different components are not fully understood. In this study, we investigated the role of extracellular DNA (eDNA) and its interaction with the recently identified cytoplasmic proteins that have a moonlighting role in the biofilm matrix. These matrix proteins associate with the cell surface upon the drop in pH that naturally occurs during biofilm formation, and we found here that this association is independent of eDNA. Conversely, the association of eDNA with the matrix was dependent on matrix proteins. Both proteinase and DNase treatments severely reduced clumping of resuspended biofilms; highlighting the importance of both proteins and eDNA in connecting cells together. By adding an excess of exogenous DNA to DNase-treated biofilm, clumping was partially restored, confirming the crucial role of eDNA in the interconnection of cells. On the basis of our results, we propose that eDNA acts as an electrostatic net, interconnecting cells surrounded by positively charged matrix proteins at a low pH. IMPORTANCE Extracellular DNA (eDNA) is an important component of the biofilm matrix of diverse bacteria, but its role in biofilm formation is not well understood. Here we report that in Staphylococcus aureus, eDNA associates with cells in a manner that depends on matrix proteins and that eDNA is required to link cells together in the biofilm. These results confirm previous studies that showed that eDNA is an important component of the S. aureus biofilm matrix and also suggest that eDNA acts as an electrostatic net that tethers cells together via the proteinaceous layer of the biofilm matrix.
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From Koch's postulates to biofilm theory. The lesson of Bill Costerton. Int J Artif Organs 2013; 35:695-9. [PMID: 23138704 DOI: 10.5301/ijao.5000169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The clinical diagnoses of implant infections pose insurmountable difficulties for cultural methods because of their frequent failure when bacteria are growing in biofilms. In 1978 Bill Costerton warned that chronic infections in patients with indwelling medical devices were caused by bacteria growing in well-developed glycocalyx-enclosed biofilms and that bacteria within biofilms resist antibiotic therapies and immune host defenses. Costerton's "biofilm theory" opened two lines of scientific endeavor: the study of the biochemistry and genetics of biofilm formation and function; and, on the other side, the search for new methods for medical diagnosis and treatment of biofilm-centered implant infections. This Editorial and the entire 2012 issue "Focus on Implant Infections" are dedicated to the memory of Bill Costerton, recognized worldwide as the Father of Biofilms for his innovation and body of work on infections caused by sessile bacteria. Bill Costerton was a great scientist, heedful both to the biological aspects of biofilms and to the medical challenges of new diagnostic methods and modern therapeutic approaches to implant infections. But, most of all, he was a charming Maestro for the large number of colleagues and students whose enthusiasm for the science he was able to nourish. Bill passed away on May 12th, 2012 and the entire science community mourns the death of a friend and a leader.
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An overview of the methodological approach to the in vitro study of anti-infective biomaterials. Int J Artif Organs 2013; 35:800-16. [PMID: 23065889 DOI: 10.5301/ijao.5000140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Biomaterial-associated infections have an enormous impact in terms of morbidity of the patients and costs to national health systems. Perioperative antibiotics and aseptic procedures have not proved sufficient to eradicate the occurrence of this type of infections which often lead to devastating effects. Adjunctive strategies for preventing the establishment of infections are increasingly being centered on the development of new biomaterials with anti-infective properties. The creation of new anti-infective biomaterials can be obtained by alternative approaches oriented to achieve either bacteria-repellent surfaces or bioactive surfaces expressing self-sterilizing properties when not even able to treat pre-existing infections in the surrounding tissues. Here, we offer a short overview of the currently available in vitro methods that can be used to investigate and assess the performance of anti-infective biomaterials, with special emphasis on those whose mechanism of action is based on bacteria-repellent surfaces.
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Staphylococcus Lugdunensis, An Aggressive Coagulase-Negative Pathogen not to be Underestimated. Int J Artif Organs 2012; 35:742-53. [DOI: 10.5301/ijao.5000142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 04/30/2012] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The new emerging coagulase-negative pathogen Staphylococcus lugdunensis is responsible for severe cardiac and joint infections. Since the biochemical phenotypic systems designed for the identification of CoNS do not appear to be species specific and are hardly reliable for the discrimination of S. lugdunensis from other staphylococci, its precise identification requires fine molecular methods. The pathogenic mechanisms by which S. lugdunensis causes severe infections are not yet completely elucidated and in this review its virulence and toxic determinants are surveyed as well as its adhesins and biofilm production.
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Biofilm Extracellular-DNA in 55 Staphylococcus Epidermidis Clinical Isolates from Implant Infections. Int J Artif Organs 2011; 34:840-6. [DOI: 10.5301/ijao.5000057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Biofilm formation is broadly recognized as an important virulence factor in many bacterial species implicated in implant-related opportunistic infections. In spite of a long history of research and many investigative efforts aimed at elucidating their chemical composition, structure, and function, the nature of bacterial biofilms still remains only partly revealed. Over the years, different extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) have been described that contribute functionally and structurally to the organization of biofilms. Recently extracellular DNA (eDNA) has emerged as a quantitatively conspicuous and potentially relevant structural component of microbial biofilms of many microbial species, Staphylococcus aureus and S. epidermidis among them. The present study aims at comparatively investigating the amount of eDNA present in the biofilm of 55 clinical isolates of S. epidermidis from postsurgical and biomaterial-related orthopedic infections. Quantification of eDNA was performed by a non-destructive method directly on bacterial biofilms formed under static conditions on the plastic surface of 96-well plates.
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New Trends in Diagnosis and Control Strategies for Implant Infections. Int J Artif Organs 2011; 34:727-36. [DOI: 10.5301/ijao.2011.8784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/31/2011] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In implant infections, a quick and reliable identification of the etiological agent is crucial to realizing efficacious therapies. Among molecular methods, automated ribotyping has proven to be an accurate and rapid technique. More recently, MALDI-TOF/MS and PCR-electrospray ionization (ESI)/ MS have been applied successfully to microbiological diagnosis. In implant infections, biofilm is still the major problem for bacterial persistence and recalcitrance to antibiotic therapy. Among biofilm-disrupting agents, enzymes promise the greatest therapeutic possibilities. DNase I degrades biofilm extracellular DNA and has been shown to sensitize biofilm to various biocides and anionic detergents, while dispersin B acts on biofilm exopolysaccharide and, combined with antiseptic, gives a broad-spectrum antibiofilm and antimicrobial activity. The novel antimicrobial approach based on photodynamic treatment (PDT) applies, in combination with antibiotics, to the implant or medical devices reachable by optical fibers. Better progress could be gained by the development of infection-resistant biomaterials able to both inhibit bacterial adhesion and promote tissue integration. New knowledge regarding the fibronectin-mediated internalization of Staphylococcus aureus by osteoblasts, and on its role in the pathogenesis of implant-related osteomyelitis, paves the way for the development of vaccines against staphylococcal adhesins, to prevent both adhesion on biomaterials and bacterial invasion of bone cells.
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