“Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum” Infections in 21 Client-Owned Cats

Prevalence and Diversity of Haemotropic Mycoplasma Species in Cats and Their Ectoparasites (Fleas and Ticks)

Mycoplasma spp. pathogens frequently cause chronic and acute diseases in cats. The aim of the present study was to investigate the presence and genetic diversity of Mycoplasma spp. in cats and their ectoparasites using PCR and sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA gene. Blood samples were collected from 541 domestic and stray cats in Lithuania. Ectoparasites (153 fleas and 321 ticks) were collected from owned domestic cats that live both outdoors and indoors. Mycoplasma spp. were detected in 7.2% of cat blood samples and 4.4% of Ctenocephalides felis fleas. The sequence analysis revealed the presence of Mycoplasma haemofelis in 1.1% of cats and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematominutum' in 4.8% of cats. Ct. felis fleas harboured M. haemofelis. To the best of the authors' knowledge, this is the first report on the prevalence and molecular characterisation of Mycoplasma bacteria in cats in Lithuania and cat fleas in the Baltic States.

Development of a Multiplex Droplet Digital PCR Assay for the Detection of Babesia, Bartonella, and Borrelia Species

We describe the development, optimization, and validation of a multiplex droplet digital PCR (ddPCR) assay for the simultaneous detection of Babesia, Bartonella, and Borrelia spp. DNA from several sample matrices, including clinical blood samples from animals and humans, vectors, in-vitro infected human and animal cell lines, and tissues obtained from animal models (infected with Bartonella and/or B. burgdorferi). The multiplex ddPCR assay was able to detect 31 Bartonella, 13 Borrelia, and 24 Babesia species, including Theileria equi, T. cervi, and Cytauxzoon felis. No amplification of Treponema or Leptospira spp. was observed. Sensitivity of 0.2-5 genome equivalent DNA copies per microliter was achieved for different members of the Bartonella and Borrelia genus, depending on the species or matrix type (water or spiked blood DNA) tested. The ddPCR assay facilitated the simultaneous detection of co-infections with two and three vector-borne pathogens comprising four different genera (Babesia, Bartonella, Borrelia, and Theileria) from clinical and other sample sources.

Feline hemotropic mycoplasmosis concurrent with bacterial cystitis in a domestic shorthair cat

Objective:

The main aim of this case report is to present a case of feline hemotropic mycoplasmosis that occurred concurrently with bacterial cystitis following the bite.

Material and methods:

A 3-year-old intact male domestic shorthair cat weighing 3.7 kg was referred to the Universiti Malaysia Kelantan Veterinary Clinic with clinical signs of hematuria and dysuria. History revealed that it was managed outdoor, fed with kibbles and wet food, but with no vaccination and deworming. Upon physical examination, the cat had a dull appearance, pale mucous membrane, normal respiratory rate, hypothermia, and bradycardia. Upon the examination of the urogenital system, there were urine burns at the anal region, necrotized penile tip, and presence of bite wound observed at the perineal region. Turgid and enlarged urinary bladder was identified upon palpation.

Results:

Diagnostic investigation revealed the hemotropic mycoplasmosis via microscopy, while urine culture was positive for Escherichia coli infection. The cat was successfully treated symptomatically.

Conclusion:

However, the prognosis of this cat was guarded given that the anemia was unresolved at the point of discharge.

Transmission pathways and spillover of an erythrocytic bacterial pathogen from domestic cats to wild felids

Many pathogens infect multiple hosts, and spillover from domestic to wild species poses a significant risk of spread of diseases that threaten wildlife and humans. Documentation of cross-species transmission, and unraveling the mechanisms that drive it, remains a challenge. Focusing on co-occurring domestic and wild felids, we evaluate possible transmission mechanisms and evidence of spillover of "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" (CMhm), an erythrocytic bacterial parasite of cats. We examine transmission and possibility of spillover by analyzing CMhm prevalence, modeling possible transmission pathways, deducing genotypes of CMhm pathogens infecting felid hosts based on sequences of the bacterial 16S rRNA gene, and conducting phylogenetic analyses with ancestral state reconstruction to identify likely cross-species transmission events. Model selection analyses suggest both indirect (i.e., spread via vectors) and direct (i.e., via interspecific predation) pathways may play a role in CMhm transmission. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that transmission of CMhm appears to predominate within host species, with occasional spillover, at unknown frequency, between species. These analyses are consistent with transmission by predation of smaller cats by larger species, with subsequent within-species persistence after spillover. Our results implicate domestic cats as a source of global dispersal and spillover to wild felids via predation. We contribute to the emerging documentation of predation as a common means of pathogen spillover from domestic to wild cats, including pathogens of global conservation significance. These findings suggest risks for top predators as bioaccumulators of pathogens from subordinate species.

Acute phase proteins response in cats naturally infected by hemotropic mycoplasmas

Information about the acute phase proteins (APP) response in cats naturally infected with hemoplasmas and in cats co-infected with different species of hemoplasmas is lacking. This study evaluated serum amyloid A (SAA), haptoglobin (Hp) and albumin in 48 cats naturally infected with hemoplasmas, including 25 with Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum and 23 co-infected with different hemoplasmas agents; and in 10 healthy control cats. Infected cats had significantly higher Hp and lower albumin than controls. Symptomatic cats had significantly higher SAA and Hp, and lower albumin than asymptomatic animals, and also than controls. Asymptomatic cats had significantly higher Hp than controls. Concentrations of APP were not significantly different between single infected and co-infected cats. According with these results, hemoplasmosis should be considered when alterations in APP are detected in diseased cats with compatible clinical signs. Furthermore, a subclinical infection should be considered in apparently healthy cats from endemic areas with increased Hp.

Vector-borne diseases in cats in Germany

Vector-borne diseases (VBDs) are caused by a wide range of pathogens, which are transmitted by a variety of vectors, such as ticks and fleas. As a result of climate changes, more vector-borne diseases are becoming endemic in Germany, not only in dogs, but also in cats. For some of the pathogens prevalence data still need to be investigated in Germany. However, natural infections with Bartonella, Anaplasma, haemotropic Mycoplasma and Borrelia species have already been described in German cats. Clinical relevance of these pathogens is not fully understood, and it is still unknown, why most infected cats stay asymptomatic and which predisposing factors contribute to the development of clinical signs in cats. Moreover, there is a risk of zoonotic transmission for some of the pathogens, e.  g., for some Bartonella spp. infections that are associated with cat scratch disease in humans. Due to the increasing number of VBDs in cats in Germany, preventive measures, such as the use of acaricides and insecticides, should be performed on a regular base in order to reduce the risk of these infections.

Molecular detection of vector-borne pathogens in Greek cats

Infectious diseases have been increasingly recognized in cats worldwide. The objective of this study was the molecular investigation of the prevalence of selected pathogens in healthy and sick cats from Greece, a country highly endemic for several canine vector-borne pathogens. Blood and/or bone marrow samples from 50 clinically healthy and 50 sick adult (>1 year-old) cats were retrospectively examined for the amplification of Bartonella spp., haemoplasmas, Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp., and Cytauxzoon spp. DNA. Overall, 14.9% of the cats were found to be infected or co-infected by haemoplasmas, including Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum and M. haemofelis. In addition, 8.5% of the cats were infected by Bartonella henselae, Bartonella clarridgeiae or Bartonella koehlerae. In contrast, DNA of Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., Babesia spp. and Cytauxzoon spp. was not amplified from the blood or bone marrow of any cat. There was no significant difference in either haemoplasma or Bartonella infection rates when comparing healthy and sick cats. This study represents the first description of Bartonella koehlerae in Greek cats.

Prevalence, Genotype Richness, and Coinfection Patterns of Hemotropic Mycoplasmas in Raccoons (Procyon lotor) on Environmentally Protected and Urbanized Barrier Islands

Raccoons (Procyon lotor) are successful urban adapters and hosts to a number of zoonotic and nonzoonotic pathogens, yet little is known about their hemoplasma infections and how prevalence varies across habitat types. This study identifies hemotropic Mycoplasma species infection in raccoons from urban and undisturbed habitats and compares hemoplasma infection in sympatric urban cats (Felis catus) from the same geographic region. We collected blood from raccoons (n = 95) on an urban coastal island (n = 37) and an undisturbed coastal island (n = 58) and from sympatric urban cats (n = 39) in Georgia, USA. Based on 16S rRNA gene amplification, 62.1% (59/95) of raccoons and 17.9% (7/39) of feral cats were positive for hemoplasma. There was a greater percentage of hemoplasma-infected raccoons on the undisturbed island (79.3% [46/58]) than on the urban island (35.1% [13/37]; χ2 = 16.9, df = 1, P = 0.00004). Sequencing of the full-length 16S rRNA gene amplicons revealed six hemoplasma genotypes in raccoons, including five novel genotypes that were distinct from three known hemoplasma species identified in the sympatric cats. In addition, the hemoplasma genotypes detected in raccoons were not identified in sympatric cats or vice versa. Although all six hemoplasma genotypes were found in raccoons from urban and undisturbed islands, coinfection patterns differed between sites and among individuals, with the proportion of coinfected raccoons being greater in the undisturbed site. This study shows that raccoons are hosts for several novel hemoplasmas and that habitat type influences infection patterns.IMPORTANCE This study provides information about novel hemoplasmas identified in raccoons (Procyon lotor), which can be used for assessments of the prevalence of these hemoplasmas in raccoon populations and for future studies on the potential pathogenic impacts of these hemoplasmas on raccoon health. Raccoons from the undisturbed habitat had a higher prevalence of hemoplasma infection than urban raccoons. There does not appear to be cross-species transmission of hemotropic mycoplasmas between urban raccoons and feral cats. Raccoons appear to be hosts for several novel hemoplasmas, and habitat type influences infection patterns.

Risk factors of different hemoplasma species infections in cats

Background

Hemoplasma species (spp.) commonly cause infections in cats worldwide. However, data on risk factors for infections are limited. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of hemoplasma spp. infections in cats in Southern Germany and to assess risk factors associated with infection.

Results

DNA was extracted from blood samples of 479 cats presented to different veterinary hospitals for various reasons. DNA of feline hemoplasmas was amplified by use of a previously reported PCR assay. Direct sequencing was used to confirm all purified amplicons and compared to hemoplasma sequences reported in GenBank. Results were evaluated in relation to the age, sex, housing conditions, feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) status of the cats.

The overall hemoplasma prevalence rate was 9.4% (45/479; 95% CI: 7.08–12.36). ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma (M.) haemominutum’ (Mhm) DNA was amplified from 42 samples, M. haemofelis from 2, and M. haemocanis from 1 sample. There was a significantly higher risk of hemoplasma infection in cats from multi-cat households, in outdoor cats, as well as in cats with FIVinfection and in cats with abortive FeLV infection, but not in cats with progressive or regressive FeLV infection.

Conclusions

Mhm infection is common in cats in Southern Germany. Higher prevalence in multi-cat households and associations with FeLV infection likely reflect the potential for direct transmission amongst cats. Outdoor access, male gender, and FIV infection are additional risk factors that might relate to aggressive interactions and exposure to vectors.

Infection with haemoplasma species in 22 cats with anaemia

OBJECTIVES

Information regarding the clinical course of natural infection with feline haemotropic mycoplasmas (haemoplasmas) is limited. The objective of the study was to describe the clinical findings and course of disease in naturally infected cats with haemoplasmosis and anaemia.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis was performed on patient data from cats presenting with anaemia and haemoplasma infection regarding signalment, clinical signs, laboratory data and course of infection. The diagnosis was confirmed by conventional haemoplasma PCR analysis.

RESULTS

Haemoplasma infection was found in 22 anaemic (haematocrit 5-25% [median 17%]; reference interval 30-44%) cats ('Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum', n = 12; Mycoplasma haemofelis, n = 3; 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis', n = 2; species not determined, n = 4; coinfection with all three species, n = 1) between 2005 and 2014. Thirteen of the cats had concurrent diseases. All cats underwent antibiotic treatment; 15 cats received blood products. Six cats were euthanased within 11 weeks owing to concurrent disease, persistent severe anaemia or financial constraints. Ten cats underwent follow-up for a period of 14-199 weeks (median 26 weeks). Haemoplasma PCR was negative in 5/7 cases after 3-23 weeks. PCR remained positive in two cases after 18 and 199 weeks, respectively. Reactivation of the haemoplasma infection occurred in two cats, once and three times, respectively, up to 177 weeks after initial presentation. Reactivation was suspected in two further cases. Owing to concurrent disease, four of the 10 follow-up cats were euthanased 14-180 weeks after initial presentation.

CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE

Infection with haemoplasma species is often chronic, can reactivate months later and is rarely a reason for euthanasia.

Occurrence and identification of hemotropic mycoplasmas (Hemoplasmas) in free ranging and laboratory rats (Rattus norvegicus) from two Brazilian zoos

BACKGROUND

Hemotropic mycoplasmas (hemoplasmas), bacteria belonging to the class Mollicutes, are obligatory red blood cell pathogens of a variety of animal species. They may cause acute anemia that is life-threatening or chronic disease that is clinically silent, but may interfere with results of experimental studies when using infected animals. Since these bacteria cannot be cultivated, molecular techniques are the gold standard for diagnosing an infection, investigating its prevalence, and describing new species. Mycoplasma coccoides and M. haemomuris are the most commonly recognized hemoplasmas in the blood of wild and laboratory rodents. Neither the epidemiology nor clinical and molecular characterization of hemoplasma infection in free-ranging rodents in Brazil has been previously reported. The aims of this study were to investigate the occurrence of hemoplasmas in free-ranging rats (Rattus norvegicus) captured in the Passeio Público and Curitiba Zoo and compare hematologic parameters of infected and non-infected animals.

RESULTS

Anti-coagulated blood samples collected from 43 free-ranging and 20 nursery rats were included in the study. Overall 63.5% were positive using SYBR® Green quantitative PCR (qPCR) of the 16S rRNA gene to screen for hemoplasma infection (72% among free-ranging rats; 45% among laboratory-raised rats). Sequencing of the qPCR products showed that all but one sample had >98% identity to M. haemomuris. Phylogenetic analysis based on a fragment of approximately 1300 bp of the 16S rRNA gene showed 99% identity to a new hemoplasma from European rats and 98% identity to a hemotropic mycoplasma described infecting a European harvest mouse (Micromys minutus). No statistically significant changes in hematologic parameters between infected and non-infected rats were found, confirming the low pathogenicity and/or silent characteristics of the infection.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that hemoplasmas are likely endemic in rodent species in this region. The epidemiology, especially as it relates to the mode of transmission, needs to be further investigated as well as the possibility that other animal species, including humans, might become infected.

Hemoplasma prevalence and hematological abnormalities associated with infection in three different cat populations from Southern Brazil

Three hemoplasma species are recognized in domestic cats: Mycoplasma haemofelis, ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’. We report the prevalence and hematological abnormalities of hemoplasma infection in 369 domestic cats from three different populations (blood donors, hospitalized cats and shelter cats) from Southern Brazil. Complete blood counts were performed at the time of blood collection, and DNA was extracted and tested by conventional PCR for each hemoplasma species. A total of 79 samples (21.40%) were positive for at least one species. The most prevalent hemoplasma was ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’, with 50/369 (13.55%) positive cats, followed by ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’, 10/369 (2.71%), and Mycoplasma haemofelis, 8/369 (2.16%). Mycoplasma haemofelis and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ coinfection was observed in 4/369 (1.08%), whereas ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’ in 5/369 (1.35%). Three cats (0.81%) were infected with all three hemoplasmas. There was no association between infection and the different populations. Anemia was associated with Mycoplasma haemofelis and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’, but not with ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’. Male cats and cats with outdoor access were more likely to be infected. Although ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ is believed to cause minimal or no hematological alterations, the infected cats studied herein were more likely to be anemic.

Co-infection with Anaplasma platys, Bartonella henselae, Bartonella koehlerae and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' in a cat diagnosed with splenic plasmacytosis and multiple myeloma

Anaplasma platys (Apl), 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' (CMh), Bartonella henselae (Bh) and Bartonella koehlerae (Bk) were confirmed by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification and DNA sequencing in a cat diagnosed with multiple myeloma. Other inconsistently documented hematologic abnormalities included anemia, thrombocytopenia, eosinophilia and hypoglycemia. Persistent Apl infection was confirmed for the first time in a North American cat by sequencing three bacterial genes (16S rRNA, p44 and GroEL) in peripheral blood samples collected 100 days apart. Following doxycycline treatment for Apl, multiple myeloma was diagnosed based upon a monoclonal gammopathy and splenic plasmacytosis, and the cat was treated with melphalan, chlorambucil and prednisolone. Apl DNA was not amplified from post-treatment blood samples and the hyperglobulinemia resolved temporarily following chemotherapy. Retrospective PCR analysis of stored DNA extracts identified CMh, Bk and Bh infections. Retrospective PCR for antigen receptor rearrangements (PARR) of splenic aspirates did not confirm B- or T-cell clonality. Co-infection with multiple vector-borne pathogens should be a diagnostic consideration in cats with chronic hypergammaglobulinemia, monoclonal gammopathy and splenic plasmacytosis.

Prevalence and co-infection of haemotropic mycoplasmas in Portuguese cats by real-time polymerase chain reaction

The diagnosis of feline haemoplasmosis has improved over the years, with several techniques enabling a clear and specific diagnosis, and where polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is considered as the 'gold standard'. The aim of this study was to survey the prevalence of feline haemoplasmas in 320 cats from the north-central region of Portugal by the use of real-time PCR, as well as to evaluate any associations between infection, clinical presentation and risk factors. The overall prevalence of infection by feline haemoplasmas was 43.43% (139/320), where 41.56% (133/320) corresponded to Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum (CMhm), 12.81% (41/320) to Mycoplasma haemofelis (Mhf), 4.38% (14/320) to Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum and 1.25% (4/320) to Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis. Almost 13% (47/320) of the samples were co-infected, with the most common co-infection being CMhm and Mhf (23.74%). Infection was found statistically significant with feline immunodeficiency/feline leukaemia virus status (P = 0.034), but no significant association was found for breed, sex, fertility status (neutered/spayed/entire), age, clinical status, living conditions (in/outdoor), anaemia status, or the presence/absence of ticks or fleas. Cats from north-central Portugal are infected with all the known feline haemoplasma species, with CMhm being the most common one. Prevalence of all feline haemoplasmas was higher than that reported previously in cats from other European countries, but similar to that described in Portugal for dogs. These data provide a better perspective regarding Mycoplasma species infection in Europe, and new information that helps us better understand feline haemoplasmosis.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii, Bartonella species and haemoplasma infection in cats in South Africa

Vector-borne agents and Toxoplasma gondii are common in cats, with many being zoonotic. The current study investigated the prevalence of selected infectious agents in cats from Johannesburg, South Africa, for which no published data exists. Whole blood and sera were obtained from 102 cats with a variety of disease conditions. Total DNA was extracted from the blood and assayed using PCR techniques for Mycoplasma haemofelis, Candidatus M haemominutum, Candidatus M turicensis, Bartonella species, Ehrlichia species and Anaplasma species. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays were used to detect IgG and IgM serum antibodies to T gondii and IgG serum antibodies to Bartonella species. Associations between test results, patient characteristics and haematological values were also evaluated. Overall, 56 cats (55%) were positive in one or more of the assays. Haemoplasma DNA was amplified from 26 cats [M haemofelis: four cats (3.9%); Candidatus M haemominutum from 22 cats (21.6%)] and Bartonella species DNA was amplified from eight cats [Bartonella henselae: five cats (4.9%); Bartonella clarridgeieae: three cats (2.9%)]; DNA of Ehrlichia species or Anaplasma species were not amplified. Of the cats, 24 (23.5%) were seropositive for Bartonella IgG and 18 (17.6%) were positive for T gondii IgM (12 cats), IgG (eight cats), or both (two cats). The study concluded that Bartonella species haemoplasmas and T gondii are common in client-owned cats in the region and the diagnosis of feline vector-borne agents and T gondii is difficult without the use of specific diagnostic tests, as there are minimal patient characteristics or haematological changes that indicate infection.

Prevalence of Bartonella species, hemoplasmas, and Rickettsia felis DNA in blood and fleas of cats in Bangkok, Thailand

Flea infestations are common in Thailand, but little is known about the flea-borne infections. Fifty flea pools and 153 blood samples were collected from client-owned cats between June and August 2009 from veterinary hospitals in Bangkok, Thailand. Total DNA was extracted from all samples, and then assessed by conventional PCR assays. The prevalence rates of Bartonella spp. in blood and flea samples were 17% and 32%, respectively, with DNA of Bartonella henselae and Bartonella clarridgeiae being amplified most commonly. Bartonella koehlerae DNA was amplified for the first time in Thailand. Hemoplasma DNA was amplified from 23% and 34% of blood samples and flea pools, respectively, with 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' and Mycoplasma haemofelis being detected most frequently. All samples were negative for Rickettsia felis. Prevalence rate of B. henselae DNA was increased 6.9 times in cats with flea infestation. Cats administered flea control products were 4.2 times less likely to be Bartonella-infected.

Genome sequence for "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum," a low-pathogenicity hemoplasma species

We present the genome sequence of "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" strain Birmingham 1, a low-pathogenicity feline hemoplasma strain.

Feline blood transfusions: A pinker shade of pale

PRACTICAL RELEVANCE

blood transfusions are a potentially life-saving procedure that are within the reach of most small animal practitioners. Only minimal equipment is required.

PATIENT GROUP

any cat with clinical signs attributable to a reduced red blood cell mass that is affecting oxygen transport (as a result of reduced packed cell volume or acute blood loss) is a potential candidate for a transfusion.

CLINICAL CHALLENGES

although the principles of transfusion medicine are not complicated, there can be fatal consequences if certain steps are omitted.

DIAGNOSTICS

blood typing kits and blood filters are readily available from veterinary wholesalers, laboratories and blood banking services.

EVIDENCE BASE

over the past three decades, a substantial body of clinical research and reports has built up covering feline blood types and transfusion medicine. This article draws on that research to provide clinical guidance aimed at all veterinarians in feline or small animal practice who either currently practise transfusion medicine or plan to do so.

Haemotropic mycoplasmas: what's their real significance in cats?

Practical relevance

The feline haemotropic mycoplasmas (‘haemoplasmas') are a group of bacteria that can induce haemolytic anaemia in cats. Mycoplasma haemofelis is the most pathogenic of the species; ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum’ and ‘Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis’ are less pathogenic. The natural route of transmission of feline haemoplasma infection has not been confirmed, but fleas are implicated. When disease results, common clinical signs are pallor, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, depression, dehydration and pyrexia. Treatment with tetracyclines or fluoroquinolones is usually effective at resolving clinical disease, but clearance of infection may not result.

Global importance

The feline haemoplasmas are found worldwide, although prevalence varies geographically.

Patient group

Older male non-pedigree cats are believed to be at increased risk of haemoplasma infection, although younger cats are possibly more likely to show clinical disease associated with M haemofelis.

Clinical challenges

The significance of feline haemoplasma infection is difficult to determine due to the existence of asymptomatic carrier cats and the variable pathogenicity of the haemoplasma species. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) results should be interpreted in the light of the patient's clinical signs and haematological findings, infecting haemoplasma species and level of haemoplasma DNA present in the blood. Trial antibiotic treatment for haemoplasmosis may be warranted in suspected cases while awaiting PCR results.

Evidence base

Aspects of feline haemoplasmosis, particularly risk factors, pathogenesis, diagnostic methods and treatment, have been the focus of much recent research. This article draws on the current evidence base with a view to helping clinicians diagnose and manage cases more effectively.

Feline hemotropic mycoplasmas

OBJECTIVE

To describe the current understanding of the etiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, and treatment of feline hemotropic mycoplasmosis (feline infectious anemia).

DATA SOURCES

Manuscripts published on hemotropic mycoplasmosis in cats and other animal species, based on a search of PubMed using the search terms 'hemoplasmas,''haemoplasmas,''hemotropic,''haemotropic,' and 'Haemobartonella,' as well as references published within manuscripts accessed.

HUMAN DATA SYNTHESIS

Although hemotropic bacteria such as Bartonella bacilliformis have been recognized in humans for over 100 years, it has only been in recent years that some of these have been identified as hemotropic mycoplasmas.

VETERINARY DATA SYNTHESIS

Three species of hemotropic mycoplasmas have been documented in cats worldwide, Mycoplasma haemofelis, 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis,' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum.' These organisms were previously known as Haemobartonella felis, but are now known to be mycoplasmas. M. haemofelis is the most pathogenic species, and causes anemia in immunocompetent cats. Although 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' may be more capable of causing anemia in immunosuppressed cats, their pathogenicity remains controversial. Assays based on polymerase chain reaction technology are the most sensitive and specific diagnostic tests available for these organisms, because they remain uncultivable in the laboratory setting. Blood smears are unreliable for diagnosis of hemoplasmosis because of their lack of sensitivity and specificity.

CONCLUSIONS

Cats presenting to emergency/critical care specialists with hemolytic anemia should be tested using polymerase chain reaction assays for hemotropic mycoplasmas before instituting antimicrobial therapy. Positive test results for M. haemofelis suggest involvement of this organism in hemolytic anemia. Other differential diagnoses for hemolytic anemia should be considered in cats testing positive for 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum,' because the presence of these organisms is not always associated with anemia. Blood from infected cats should be handled with care because of the potential zoonotic nature of this infection.

Prevalence of selected infectious agents in cats in Ireland

Vector-borne bacterial and rickettsial agents and Toxoplasma gondii, are common organisms in cats. Some are potentially zoonotic or may be transmitted via blood transfusion. The current study investigated the prevalence of these agents in cats from Dublin, Ireland, for which no published data exists. Whole blood (n=116) and sera (n=83) samples were obtained from 121 cats. DNA was extracted from blood and assayed using polymerase chain reaction techniques for Anaplasma species, Bartonella species, Ehrlichia species, Mycoplasma haemofelis, 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum', 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' and Rickettsia species. IgG and T gondii IgG and IgM serum antibodies were detected by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. DNA consistent with B henselae (3.4%), B clarridgeiae (0.8%), both Bartonella species (0.8%), C M haemominutum (12.9%), or M haemofelis (2.5%) was amplified from 24/116 blood samples (20.6%). Antibodies to T gondii and Bartonella species were detected in 28 (33.7%) and 22 (26.5%) of 83 sera, respectively.

Prevalence of hemotropic mycoplasmas in healthy and unhealthy cats and dogs in Spain

The aims of the present study were to determine the prevalence of hemoplasmas in cats and dogs from the Barcelona area of Spain with the use of species-specific quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays and to evaluate any associations between hemoplasma infection, clinical presentation, and vector-borne infections. Blood samples from cats (191) and dogs (182) were included and were classified as healthy (149) or unhealthy (224). Ethylenediamine tetra-acetic acid blood samples underwent DNA extraction and qPCR analysis. Mycoplasma haemofelis, 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum', and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma turicensis' were detected in cats, whereas Mycoplasma haemocanis and 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum' were detected in dogs, with prevalences of 3.7%, 9.9%, 0.5%, 14.3%, and 0.6%, respectively. In cats, no association between hemoplasma infection and health status, age, breed, presence of anemia, Feline leukemia virus status, and other vector-borne infections was found, but outdoor access (P = 0.009), male sex (P = 0.01), and Feline immunodeficiency virus status (P < 0.001) were significantly associated with hemoplasma infection. In dogs, sex, age, health status, presence of anemia, and breed were not significantly associated with hemoplasma infection, but a significant association was found between hemoplasma infection and vector-borne infections (P < 0.001). The present report documents the occurrence of feline 'Candidatus M. turicensis' and canine 'Candidatus M. haematoparvum' infections in Spain.

First molecular identification of 'Candidatus mycoplasma haemominutum' from a cat with fatal haemolytic anaemia in Hungary

Although haemobartonellosis was previously reported in Hungary, until now the diagnosis (based on morphological identification in blood smears) has only been suggestive of the occurrence of the large species, recently reclassified as Mycoplasma haemofelis. However, in July 2007 a cat was presented at a small animal clinic with severe haemolytic anaemia, icterus and haemoglobinuria. While biochemical parameters were within the reference range, the cat had leukocytosis and rapidly decreasing haematocrit values, and eventually died 7 days after the sudden onset of aggravating clinical signs. From blood samples of the cat 'Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum' was identified by molecular methods, according to its 100% 16S rRNA gene sequence homology with two Swiss isolates and one isolate from the UK. The rapid termination of the disease and the high pathogenicity of the causative agent observed in this case are unusual, taking into account that PCR results were negative for immunosuppressive viruses. This is the first record of this feline haemoplasma species in Hungary.