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Kupper LL, Martin SL, Wretman CJ. Commentary: On measurement error, PSA doubling time, and prostate cancer. GLOBAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2023; 6:100129. [PMID: 38106441 PMCID: PMC10724542 DOI: 10.1016/j.gloepi.2023.100129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 11/10/2023] [Accepted: 11/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Exposure measurement error is a pervasive problem for epidemiology research projects designed to provide valid and precise statistical evidence supporting postulated exposure-disease relationships of interest. The purpose of this commentary is to highlight an important real-life example of this exposure measurement error problem and to provide a simple and useful diagnostic tool for physicians and their patients that corrects for the exposure measurement error. More specifically, prostate-specific antigen doubling time (PSADT) is a widely used measure for guiding future treatment options for patients with biochemically recurrent prostate cancer. Numerous papers have been published claiming that a low calculated PSADT value (denoted PSADT ^ ) is predictive of metastasis and premature death from prostate cancer. Unfortunately, none of these papers have adjusted for the measurement error in PSADT ^ , an estimator that is typically computed using the popular Memorial Sloan Kettering website very often visited by both physicians and their patients. For this website, the estimator PSADT ^ of the true (but unknown) PSADT for a patient (denoted PSADT∗) is computed as the natural log of 2 (i.e., 0.6931) divided by the estimated slope of the straight-line regression of the natural log of PSA (in ng/mL) on time. We utilize PSADT ^ to derive an expression for the probability that the unknown PSADT∗ for a patient is below a specified value C (> 0 ) of concern to both the physician and the patient. This probability is easy to interpret and takes into account the fact that PSADT ^ is a statistical estimator with variability. This variability introduces measurement error, namely, the difference between a computed value PSADT ^ and the true, but unknown, value PSADT∗. We have developed an Excel calculator that, once the [time, ln(PSA)] values are entered, outputs both the value of PSADT ^ and the desired probability. In addition, we discuss problematic statistical issues attendant with PSADT∗ estimation typically based on at most three or four PSA values. We strongly recommend the use of this probability when physicians are discussing PSADT ^ values and associated treatment options with their patients. And, we stress that future epidemiology research projects involving PSA doubling time should take into account the measurement error problem highlighted in this Commentary.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence L. Kupper
- Department of Biostatistics, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Sandra L. Martin
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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Hsieh TF, Chen HL, Hsia YF, Lin CC, Chiang HY, Wu MY, Chen SH, Hsieh PF, Wu HC, Chang H, Kuo CC. Age-specific percentile-based prostate-specific antigen cutoff values predict the risk of prostate cancer: A single hospital observation. Biomedicine (Taipei) 2023; 13:9-24. [PMID: 37937061 PMCID: PMC10627214 DOI: 10.37796/2211-8039.1415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 05/18/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 11/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Testing for prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is often recommended for men with a potential risk of prostate cancer (PCa) before requiring advanced examination. However, the best PSA cutoff value remains controversial. Object We compared the predictive performance of age-specific percentile-based PSA thresholds with a conventional cutoff of >4 ng/mL for the risk of PCa. Methods We included men who received PSA measurements between 2003 and 2017 in a medical center in Taiwan. Logistic regression modeling was used to assess the association between age-specific percentile-based PSA thresholds and PCa risk in age subgroups. We further applied C-statistic and decision curve analysis to compare the predictive performance of age-specific percentile-based PSA with that of a conventional cutoff PSA. Results We identified 626 patients with PCa and 40 836 patients without PCa. The slope of PSA in patients >60-year-old was almost 3 times that of those <60-year-old (0.713 vs 0.259). The risk effect sizes of the 75th percentile PSA cutoff (<60-year-old: 2.19; 60-70-year-old: 4.36; >70-year-old: 5.84 ng/mL) were comparable to those observed based on the conventional cutoff in all age groups. However, the discrimination performance of the 75th percentile PSA cutoff was better than that of the conventional cutoff among patients aged <60-year-old (C-statistic, 0.783 vs. 0.729, p < 0.05). The 75th percentile cutoffs also correctly identified an additional 2 patients with PCa for every 100 patients with PSA screening at the threshold probability of 20%. Conclusions Our data support the use of the 75th percentile PSA cutoff to facilitate individualized risk assessment, particularly for patients aged <60-year-old.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teng-Fu Hsieh
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Taichung Tzu Chi Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
| | - Hung-Lin Chen
- Big Data Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
| | - Ying-Fang Hsia
- Big Data Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
| | - Che-Chen Lin
- Big Data Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
| | - Hsiu-Yin Chiang
- Big Data Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
| | - Min-Yen Wu
- Big Data Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Hsuan Chen
- Big Data Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
| | - Po-Fan Hsieh
- Department of Urology, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung,
Taiwan
- Department of Urology, China Medical University Beigang Hospital, Beigang, Yunlin,
Taiwan
| | - Hsi-Chin Wu
- Department of Urology, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
- Department of Urology, China Medical University Beigang Hospital, Beigang, Yunlin,
Taiwan
| | - Han Chang
- Department of Pathology, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
| | - Chin-Chi Kuo
- Big Data Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
- College of Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung,
Taiwan
- Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
- Division of Nephrology, Department of Internal Medicine, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung,
Taiwan
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Okuja M, Ameda F, Dabanja H, Bongomin F, Bugeza S. Relationship between serum prostate-specific antigen and transrectal prostate sonographic findings in asymptomatic Ugandan males. AFRICAN JOURNAL OF UROLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1186/s12301-021-00162-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
AbstractBackgroundProstate disorders are among the leading causes of morbidity and mortality in men above the age of 40 years globally. Serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) levels may be used to screen men at risk of prostate cancer and determine choice of medical treatment in benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) and evaluation of patients with prostatitis, while prostate sonography determines prostate volume (PV) and detects nodules. BPH may exhibit distinct hypoechoic, isoechoic, or hyperechoic nodules in the transition zone, whereas hypoechoic nodules in the peripheral zone are diagnostic for prostate cancer in over 50% of cases. In this study, we aimed at determining the relationship between serum PSA levels and transrectal prostate sonographic findings among asymptomatic Ugandan males.MethodsUgandan males above 30 years of age or older without lower urinary tract symptoms were cross-sectionally enrolled into the study. Serum PSA determination and transrectal ultrasound were performed. Association between PSA levels and PV was assessed using Spearman’s correlation coefficients (ρ).ResultsA total of 277 men were studied. The median serum PSA level was 1 (95% CI: 1–2). Most (n = 217, 78.3%) participants had serum PSA levels ≤ 4 ng/ml. The median sonographic PV was 26 (95% CI: 26–29) mls. One hundred and fifty-five (56.0%) participants had PV between 25 and 50 mls. Both PSA levels and PV progressively increased with age from 0.9 ng/ml and 22 mls in the 30–39 year age group to 7 ng/ml and 38 mls in the 60–69 year age group, respectively. PSA levels weakly correlated with PV (ρ = 0.27) (p < 0.0001). One hundred and thirty (47%) participants had prostatic nodules. Of these, 100 (77%) had features of benign nodules and 23% had suspicious nodules for prostate cancer. The median (range) serum PSA level in those with nodules was 2.0 (0.1–16.0) ng/ml and for those without nodules was 1.1 (0.1–8.0) ng/ml (p < 0.0001).ConclusionsSerum PSA has a weak direct correlation with PV and not a reliable marker for the prediction of presence or absence of prostatic nodules in asymptomatic adult males.
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Reza HS, Ali Z, Tara H, Ali B. Age-specific reference ranges of prostate-specific antigen in the elderly of Amirkola: A population-based study. Asian J Urol 2020; 8:183-188. [PMID: 33996474 PMCID: PMC8099648 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajur.2020.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective To determine the age-specific reference ranges of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) in the older men in the city of Amirkola. Methods This cross-sectional study is a part of Amirkola Health and Ageing Project (AHAP) which has been conducted as a cohort study since 2011 in Amirkola, a city in northern Iran. The demographic information of all men aged 60 and older were collected through questionnaires and interviews and the PSA measurements were performed using ELISA and Diametra kit. The acquired data were analyzed afterwards. Results A number of 837 elderly men with a mean age of 69.99±7.72 years participated in this study. The serum PSA level (95th percentile) was determined to be 0.9 (0–4.89) ng/mL in the age group of 60–64 years, 1.1 (0–4.88) ng/mL in the age group of 65–69 years, 0.93 (0–9.01) ng/mL in the age group of 70–74 years, 1.3 (0–7.95) ng/mL in the age group of 75–79 years, 1.9 (0–11.98 ng/mL) in the age group of 80–84 years, and 1.45 (0–33.17) ng/mL in the 85 and older group. The serum PSA level was significantly correlated with age (p=0.000). Conclusion This study indicated that there is a direct correlation between the age and serum PSA levels. The use of age-specific reference range could guide clinicians on the incidence of prostate cancer in this population and perhaps reduce the number of unnecessary tests in this population group.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Zabihi Ali
- Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
| | | | - Bijani Ali
- Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol, Iran
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Ikuerowo SO, Ajala MO, Abolarinwa AA, Omisanjo OA. Age-specific Serum Prostate Specific Antigen Ranges Among Apparently Healthy Nigerian Men Without Clinical Evidence of Prostate Cancer. Niger J Surg 2016; 22:5-8. [PMID: 27013850 PMCID: PMC4785694 DOI: 10.4103/1117-6806.169821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Serum prostate specific antigen (PSA) levels increase with age and varies among different races and communities. The study was aimed at defining the age-specific reference ranges of serum PSA in our environment. METHODS We evaluated the relationship between age and serum PSA levels and the age-specific reference ranges of serum PSA among civil servants in Lagos, who underwent routine medical checkups. Criteria for inclusion were men who have no lower urinary tract symptoms, normal digital rectal examination and serum PSA ≤ 20 ng/ml. SPSS Statistic 21 was used for data evaluation and the mean, median, 95(th) percentile PSA levels were estimated. Pearson's correlation was used to examine the relationship, and P < 0.05 was considered significant. RESULTS 4032 men met the criteria for inclusion in the evaluation. The mean age was 51.6 (range 40-70) years, and there was a strong correlation between serum PSA levels and age (r = 0.097, P < 0.001). PSA ranges of 0-2.5, >2.5-4.0, >4.0-10, and >10 ng/ml were found in 3218 (80%), 481 (12%), 284 (7%), and 52 (1%) men, respectively. The mean, median and the 95(th) percentile PSA for the overall group were 1.84, 1.33, and 5.2 ng/ml respectively. However the 95(th) percentile PSA levels for men aged 40-49, 50-59, and 60-70 years were 4.78, 5.47, and 8.93 ng/ml respectively. CONCLUSION The age-specific PSA levels among Nigerian men for each age group is higher than what was described for men in the Western world. These reference ranges of serum PSA should be considered for men aged ≥40 years in our environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- S O Ikuerowo
- Department of Surgery, Urology Division, Lagos State University College of Medicine and Lagos State University Teaching Hospital, Ikeja, Nigeria
| | - M O Ajala
- Department of Chemical Pathology, Lagos State Pathology Services, General Hospital, Lagos, Nigeria
| | - A A Abolarinwa
- Department of Surgery, Urology Division, Lagos State University College of Medicine and Lagos State University Teaching Hospital, Ikeja, Nigeria
| | - O A Omisanjo
- Department of Surgery, Urology Division, Lagos State University College of Medicine and Lagos State University Teaching Hospital, Ikeja, Nigeria
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Kitagawa Y, Namiki M. Prostate-specific antigen-based population screening for prostate cancer: current status in Japan and future perspective in Asia. Asian J Androl 2016; 17:475-80. [PMID: 25578935 PMCID: PMC4430954 DOI: 10.4103/1008-682x.143756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In Western countries, clinical trials on prostate cancer screening demonstrated a limited benefit for patient survival. In the Asia-Pacific region, including Japan, the rate of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing remains very low compared with Western countries, and the benefits of population-based screening remain unclear. This review describes the current status of population screening and diagnosis for prostate cancer in Japan and discusses the efficacy of population screening for the Asian population. Since the 1990s, screening systems have been administered by each municipal government in Japan, and decreases in the prostate cancer mortality rate are expected in some regions where the exposure rate to PSA screening has increased markedly. A population-based screening cohort revealed that the proportion of metastatic disease in cancer detected by screening gradually decreased according to the increased exposure rate, and a decreasing trend in the proportion of cancer with high serum PSA levels after population screening was started. The prognosis of the prostate cancer detected by population screening was demonstrated to be more favorable than those diagnosed outside of the population screening. Recent results in screening cohorts demonstrated the efficacy of PSA. These recent evidences regarding population-based screening in Japan may contribute to establishing the optimal prostate cancer screening system in Asian individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhide Kitagawa
- Department of Integrative Cancer Therapy and Urology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa 920-8640, Japan
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Kitagawa Y, Machioka K, Yaegashi H, Nakashima K, Ofude M, Izumi K, Ueno S, Kadono Y, Konaka H, Mizokami A, Namiki M. Decreasing trend in prostate cancer with high serum prostate-specific antigen levels detected at first prostate-specific antigen-based population screening in Japan. Asian J Androl 2015; 16:833-7. [PMID: 25219906 PMCID: PMC4236325 DOI: 10.4103/1008-682x.135122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
To clarify the recent trends in prostate-specific antigen (PSA) distribution in men in Japan, we analyzed the PSA distributions of men undergoing PSA-based population screening. We summarized the annual individual data of PSA-based population screening in Kanazawa, Japan, from 2000 to 2011, and analyzed baseline serum PSA values of the participants at the first population screening. Serum PSA distributions were estimated in all participants and those excluding prostate cancer patients according to age. From 2000 to 2011, 19 620 men participated aged 54–69 years old in this screening program. Mean baseline serum PSA level of all participants at the first screening was 2.64 ng ml−1 in 2000, and gradually decreased to approximately 1.30 ng ml−1 in 2006. That of participants excluding prostate cancer patients was 1.46 ng ml−1 in 2000, and there was no remarkable change during the study period. The 95th percentiles in the participants excluding prostate cancer patients detected at the first population screening of men aged 54–59, 60–64, and 65–69 years old were 2.90, 3.60, and 4.50 ng ml−1, respectively. After the commencement of population screening, the proportion of prostate cancer patients with high serum PSA levels decreased. However, there were no changes in serum PSA levels in men without prostate cancer. Age-specific PSA reference level of men without prostate cancer in Japan was similar to that in China and Korea.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasuhide Kitagawa
- Department of Integrative Cancer Therapy and Urology, Kanazawa University Graduate School of Medical Science, Kanazawa 920-8640, Japan
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Stattin P, Vickers AJ, Sjoberg DD, Johansson R, Granfors T, Johansson M, Pettersson K, Scardino PT, Hallmans G, Lilja H. Improving the Specificity of Screening for Lethal Prostate Cancer Using Prostate-specific Antigen and a Panel of Kallikrein Markers: A Nested Case-Control Study. Eur Urol 2015; 68:207-13. [PMID: 25682340 PMCID: PMC4496315 DOI: 10.1016/j.eururo.2015.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2014] [Accepted: 01/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A disadvantage of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) for the early detection of prostate cancer (PCa) is that many men must be screened, biopsied, and diagnosed to prevent one death. OBJECTIVE To increase the specificity of screening for lethal PCa at an early stage. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS We conducted a case-control study nested within a population-based cohort. PSA and three additional kallikreins were measured in cryopreserved blood from a population-based cohort in Västerbotten, Sweden. Of 40379 men providing blood at ages 40, 50, and 60 yr from 1986 to 2009, 12542 men were followed for >15 yr. From this cohort, the Swedish Cancer Registry identified 1423 incident PCa cases, 235 with distant metastasis. OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS AND STATISTICAL ANALYSIS Risk of distant metastasis for different PSA levels and a prespecified statistical model based on the four kallikrein markers. RESULTS AND LIMITATIONS Most metastatic cases occurred in men with PSA in the top quartile at age 50 yr (69%) or 60 yr (74%), whereas 20-yr risk of metastasis for men with PSA below median was low (≤0.6%). Among men with PSA >2 ng/ml, a prespecified model based on four kallikrein markers significantly enhanced the prediction of metastasis compared with PSA alone. About half of all men with PSA >2 ng/ml were defined as low risk by this model and had a ≤1% 15-yr risk of metastasis. CONCLUSIONS Screening at ages 50-60 yr should focus on men with PSA in the top quartile. A marker panel can aid biopsy decision making. PATIENT SUMMARY For men in their fifties, screening should focus on those in the top 10% to 25% of PSA values because the majority of subsequent cases of distant metastasis are found among these men. Testing of four kallikrein markers in men with an elevated PSA could aid biopsy decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pär Stattin
- Department of Surgical and Perioperative Sciences, Urology and Andrology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Andrew J Vickers
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Daniel D Sjoberg
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Robert Johansson
- Regional Cancer Centre, Department of Radiation Sciences, Oncology, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | | | - Mattias Johansson
- Section of Genetics, The International Agency for Research on Cancer, Lyon, France
| | - Kim Pettersson
- Division of Biotechnology, University of Turku, Turku, Finland
| | - Peter T Scardino
- Department of Surgery (Urology), Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Göran Hallmans
- Department of Public Health and Clinical Medicine, Nutritional Research, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Hans Lilja
- Department of Surgery (Urology), Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA; Departments of Laboratory Medicine and Medicine (Genitourinary Oncology), Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA; Nuffield Department of Surgical Sciences, University of Oxford, John Radcliffe Hospital, Headington, Oxford, UK; Department of Translational Medicine, Lund University, Skåne University Hospital, Malmö, Sweden.
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