Subacute Oral Toxicity Assesment of Ethanol Extract of Mariposa christia vespertilionis Leaves in Male Sprague Dawley Rats

Hematological, biochemical, and histopathological evaluation of the Morus alba L. leaf extract from Brunei Darussalam: Acute toxicity study in ICR mice

Background

Studies have reported that the phytochemical content of Mulberry (Morus alba Linn.) is influenced by the area where it grows. On the other hand, the study of the bioactivity and toxicity of mulberry leaves from Brunei Darussalam still needs to be completed. In particular, the investigation regarding the safe dose for Mulberry's application from Brunei Darussalam has yet to be studied. Hence, toxicity information must be considered even though the community has used it for generations.

Aim

This study investigated Morus alba ethanolic leaf extract (MAE) to observe the acute toxicity in mice.

Methods

In particular, this study utilized 12 female Institute of Cancer Research mice, 8 weeks old, divided into 2 groups: the control group and the MAE group (2,000 mg/kg single dose). Physiology, hematology, biochemistry, and histology were analyzed during the study.

Results

The examination result indicated no mortality and behavioral changes throughout the testing period. However, the mice developed mild anemia and leukopenia, followed by decreased numbers of neutrophils, lymphocytes, and monocytes. In addition, the mice developed a mild hepatocellular injury, indicated by significant (p < 0.05) elevations of both alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate transaminase (AST). The histopathological findings of the liver were also consistent with the increment of ALT and AST, indicating mild hepatocellular necrosis through the eosinophilic cytoplasm and pyknosis (p > 0.05).

Conclusion

It was evident that a single oral administration of MAE was not lethal for mice (LD50, which was higher than 2,000 mg/kg). However, the administration of high doses of MAE must be carefully considered.

Evaluation of anti-hyperuricemic effects of Alocasia longiloba Miq. (Keladi Candik) extracts in potassium oxonate induced rat model

Hyperuricemia has become a significant public-health concern in recent years, and the available treatments have been reported to have an adverse side effect on patients. Alocasia longiloba has been used traditionally in Malaysia for treating gout, inflammation, and wounds. However, the plant has not been investigated for its effects on hyperuricemia. This study investigated the anti-hyperuricemic and anti-inflammatory effects of A. longiloba extracts in hyperuricemic rats induced by potassium oxonate (250 mg/kg body weight). Rats were given A. longiloba extracts or a standard drug for two-week, and blood and tissue samples were collected for analysis. Results show that A. longiloba extracts significantly reduced serum uric acid levels in hyperuricemic rats and inhibited xanthine oxidase (XOD) activity in the liver and kidney, which could be the mechanism underlying the urate-lowering effects. The extracts also significantly (p < 0.05) reduced the levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IL-18 and IL-1β) in serum samples and had hepatoprotective and nephroprotective effects in hyperuricemic rats. The study supports the use of A. longiloba as a complementary therapy for treating hyperuricemia.

Green tea silver nanoparticles improve physiological motor and cognitive function in BALB/c mice during inflammation

Information on the basic changes associated with green tea small molecules in acute inflammation is deficient. The purpose of the study was to characterize and establish the effects of green tea silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) following inflammation in BALB/c male mice. In this study, green tea silver nitrate nanoparticles were characterized and the extract were made up to constitute high (100%), medium (10%), and low (1%) concentrations for administration. Acute inflammation was induced in groups I-V of the experimental rodents by injecting 0.5 ml/kg of fresh egg albumin on the subplantar surface of the right hind paw and animals were monitored for 36 h. Group I-III were administered 100%, 10%, 1% green tea nanoparticles extract while group IV was given diclofenac. Group V was the positive control while group VI was the negative control that received the vehicle. Paw edema was measured at a 2 h interval for 3 days, while the pain was assessed by measuring the locomotion activity using the voluntary wheel running and the anxiety-like behavior. Hypersensitivity was measured through the temperature sensation experiment and a non-linear regression analysis was done. Here, synthesized green tea AgNPs registered an absorbance band at 460 nm, phytochemicals due to presence of organic functional groups of O[bond, double bond]C[bond, double bond]O of oxycarbons, of C[bond, double bond]C of a conjugate alkene, C[bond, double bond]O of a stretching bond of a secondary alcohol. The silver green tea nanoparticles were spherical, covered by a slimy layer, capped and stable. Green tea AgNPs significantly decreased temperature hypersensitivity in BALB/c male mice and this demonstrated their protective effects. Low concentrations of green tea nanoparticles inhibited edema thus mimicking effects of diclofenac, however, the percentage of inhibition was highest in medium and high silver-tea nanoparticles concentrations demonstration the importance of concentration in therapeutics. Anxiety was lowest in BALB/c male mice treated with high concentrations of silver green tea nanoparticles, and this led to increased locomotory activity in mice. Green tea AgNPs have strong anti-inflammatory effects at high concentrations. Concentrations of green tea AgNPs modulated basic sensory and motor behaviors in BALB/c male mice demonstrating their importance in complementary and integrative medical practice.

Phytochemical Analysis and Toxicity Assessment of Bouea Macrophylla Yoghurt

The Bouea macrophylla fruit is native to Malaysia and is known for its many beneficial effects on one's health. Probiotics are well-known for their roles as anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and anti-tumour properties due to their widespread use. As a result, the purpose of this study was to incorporate the ethanolic extract of Bouea macrophylla into yoghurt and then assess the rodents for any toxicological effects. According to the findings of the nutritional analysis, each 100 mL serving of the newly formulated yoghurt contains 3.29 g of fat, 5.79 g of carbohydrates, 2.92 g of total protein, and 2.72 g of sugar. The ability of the newly developed yoghurt to stimulate the growth of Lactobacilli was demonstrated by the fact that the peak intensity of Lactobacillus species was measured at 1.2 × 10⁶ CFU/g while the titratable acidity of the lactic acid was measured at 0.599 CFU/g. In order to carry out the toxicological evaluation, forty-eight male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats were utilized. Oral administration of single doses of 2000 mg/kg over the course of 14 days was used for the study of acute toxicity. Subacute toxicity was studied by giving animals Bouea macrophylla yoghurt (BMY) at repeated doses of 50, 250, 500, and 1000 mg/kg/day over a period of 28 days, while the control group was given normal saline. The results of the acute toxicity test revealed that rats treated with increasing doses up to a maximum of 2000 mg/kg exhibited no signs of toxicity. After an additional 14 days without treatment, acute toxicity of a single dose (2000 mg/kg) of BMY did not show any treatment-related toxicity in any of the rats that were observed. According to the data from the subacute toxicity study, there were no differences between the treated groups and the control groups in terms of food and water intake, body weight, plasma biochemistry (AST, ALT, ALP, and creatinine), haematological products, or organ weights. The architecture of the liver, heart, and kidney were all found to be normal upon histological examination. This indicates that oral consumption of BMY did not result in any negative effects being manifested in the rodents.

Acute Oral Toxicity Assessment and Anti-hyperuricemic Activity of Alocasia longiloba Extracts on Sprague-Dawley Rats

Hyperuricemia is defined as a metabolic abnormality that occurs when serum uric acid (UA) level is abnormally high in the body. We previously reported that A. longiloba possesses various important phytochemicals and in vitro xanthine oxidase activity. Despite A. longiloba ethnomedicinal benefits, its toxicity and anti-hyperuricemic effects have not been reported. The present study was carried out to ensure the safety and investigate the anti-hyperuricemic effects of A. longiloba fruit and petiole ethanolic extracts on rats. In the acute toxicity study, extracts were orally administered at a dose of 2000 mg/kg bodyweight and closely monitored for 2-week for any toxicity effects. The rats were then sacrificed and samples were collected and analyzed for hematological, biochemical, and histopathological parameters. The anti-hyperuricemic effect of A. longiloba fruit or petiole extract was investigated through determination of UA levels on potassium oxonate (PO)-induced hyperuricemic rats. Extracts or standard drug treatments were orally administrated 1-h after PO administration for 14-day. Animals were euthanized and samples were collected for further experiments. The toxicity results show, no significant changes were observed in behavioral, bodyweight changes in experimental groups compared to the control. Moreover, there were no significant changes in hematological, biochemical, and histological parameters between extracts treated and control group. In the anti-hyperuricemia study, the fruit and petiole extracts treatments significantly reduced the level of UA in serum compared to the hyperuricemic model group. This study demonstrated that the extracts of A. longiloba have anti-hyperuricemic activity and was found to be non-toxic to rats in acute toxicity test.

Moringa oleifera hydorethanolic leaf extract induced acute and sub-acute hepato-nephrotoxicity in female ICR-mice

Moringa oleifera (M. oleifera) Lam belongs to the family Moringaceae. It is an important multipurpose tree that is largely distributed globally and has been used almost in every aspect of traditional medicine for the treatment of various illnesses including cancers, diabetes mellitus, asthma, arthritis, etc. This study investigated the effects of oral acute and sub-acute administration of M. oleifera hydroethanolic leaf extract (MOHE) in ICR-mice. Its major phenolic compounds were also determined. Ten (10) female, 8-week old mice were grouped into control and treatment groups for acute toxicity study. A dose of 2000 mg/kg MOHE was given once to the treatment group via oral gavage. However, for the sub-acute toxicity study, 25 mice were grouped into groups A (control), B (125 mg/kg), C (250 mg/kg), D (500 mg/kg) and E (1000 mg/kg). MOHE was given via oral gavage to groups B, C, D and E daily for 28 days. Group A received only distilled water. The mice were sacrificed at the end of the experiments and samples were collected for evaluation. The results of the chemical profiling of MOHE revealed the presence of glucomoringin, niaziminine, quercetin and kaempferol as the major compounds. The treated mice in the acute toxicity study were slightly anaemic and showed evidence of stress leukogram. Moreover, a slight increase in creatinine, significant increases in AST and CK, hepatic degeneration and necrosis, none-obstructive sinusoidal dilatation, renal tubular necrosis, interstitial nephritis and renal interstitial oedema were observed. It is concluded that the LD50 of MOHE is higher than 2000 mg/kg. However, oral administration of MOHE causes acute mild anaemia and moderate hepato-nephrotoxicity in ICR-mice. Its major phenolic compounds are glucomoringin, niaziminine, quercetin and kaempferol.

Acute toxicity of aqueous extract of Ambrosia arborescens Mill. on biochemical and histopathological parameters in rats

Medicinal plants play an important role in the management of various diseases, so their use has become widespread. However, in some cases the population uses plant species regardless of the toxicity they may possess. The objective of this study was to evaluate the acute toxicity of aqueous extract from the leaves of Ambrosia arborescens Mill. on the biochemical and histopathological parameters of albino Holtzman rats. To do this, the leaves of A. arborescens were collected in the province of Julcan, La Libertad Region-Peru. OECD (Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development) guideline 423 was conducted, forming experimental groups of 10 animals each one (5 males and 5 females): Group I (Control), which received 2 mL physiological saline solution (SSF 0.9%), Groups II and III (A. arborescens-300 and A. arborescens-2000), which were given the aqueous extract leaves of A. arborescens in a single dose of 300 and 2000 mg/kg/day, respectively. On the 14th day of exposure, biochemical (creatinine, ALT and AST) and histopathological parameters were measured. The results show that the aqueous extract of A. arborescens at the dose of 2000 mg/kg produces an increase in biochemical parameters which is related to histopathological analysis of liver and renal tissue with mild congestion. The study concludes that the aqueous extract leaves of A. arborescens has a LD50 greater than 2000 mg/kg and produces mild congestion in kidneys and liver, but showed no significant toxicological changes in the other albino Holtzman rats organs.

Subacute oral toxicity and bacterial mutagenicity of a mixture of Puerariae radix and Hizikia fusiforme extracts

The study aims to identify the safety profile of a mixed extract (KGC-02-PS) from two traditional medicinal herbs, Puerariae radix and Hizikia fusiforme. In a subacute oral toxicity study, KGC-02-PS was administered orally for 28 days by gavage to Sprague Dawley rats (both sexes) at a daily dose of 0, 500, 1000, and 2000 mg/kg body weight. Bodyweight, food consumption, and clinical signs were monitored during the experimental period. After administering the final dose, this study conducted hematology, serum biochemistry, and pathological evaluations. In addition, the study performed a bacterial reverse mutation test with varying concentrations of KGC-02-PS (312.5 μg - 5,000 μg/plate) following OECD guideline No. 471, before testing five bacterial strains (Salmonella typhimurium TA98, TA100, TA1535, TA1537, and Escherichia coli WP2) in the presence or absence of metabolic activation. The preclinical evaluation of KGC-02-PS's subacute oral toxicity yielded no associated toxicological effects or any changes in clinical signs, body weight, and food consumption. Moreover, examining KGC-02-PS's hematological and serum biochemical characteristics and pathology yielded no toxicological changes in terms of organ weight measurements and gross or histopathological findings. KGC-02-PS neither increased the number of revertant colonies in all bacterial strains used in the bacterial reverse mutation test, nor did it induce genotoxicity related to bacterial reverse mutations under the study's conditions. Also, KGC-02-PS's no-observed-adverse-effect level was greater than 2000 mg/kg.

Safety assessment of fermented jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) pulp and leaves in Sprague-Dawley rats

Fermented jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) extracts were produced using pure symbiotic culture of bacteria and yeast (SCOBY) under controlled fermentation process. Both female and male Sprague-Dawley rats were orally administrated with 4,000 mg/kg of fermented jackfruit pulp and leaves extracts for 28 consecutive days. Body weight of rats was recorded at 1-week interval until necropsy day. There was no mortality reported along the experiment with no significant differences (p > .05) record among organ histopathology and blood biochemical parameters in treated groups when compared to control group. Interestingly, there were significant differences (p < .05) in the lower body weight gained of treated rats groups as opposed to control group, indicating the potential anti-obesity effect of fermented jackfruit extracts. In conclusion, no toxicity symptoms were observed in 28 days oral administration toxicity study of fermented jackfruit pulp and leaves extracts in Sprague-Dawley rats for both sexes.

Subacute Oral Administration of Clinacanthus nutans Ethanolic Leaf Extract Induced Liver and Kidney Toxicities in ICR Mice

This study investigated the leaves of Clinacanthus nutans for its bioactive compounds and acute and subacute toxicity effects of C. nutans ethanolic leaf extract (CELE) on blood, liver and kidneys of ICR mice. A total of 10 8-week-old female mice were divided into groups A (control) and B (2000 mg/kg) for the acute toxicity study. A single dose of 2000 mg/kg was administered to group B through oral gavage and mice were monitored for 14 days. In the subacute toxicity study, mice were divided into five groups: A (control), B (125 mg/kg), C (250 mg/kg), D (500 mg/kg) and E (1000 mg/kg). The extract was administered daily for 28 days via oral gavage. The mice were sacrificed, and samples were collected for analyses. Myricetin, orientin, isoorientin, vitexin, isovitexin, isookanin, apigenin and ferulic acid were identified in the extract. Twenty-eight days of continuous oral administration revealed significant increases (p < 0.05) in creatinine, ALT and moderate hepatic and renal necrosis in groups D and E. The study concluded that the lethal dose (LD₅₀) of CELE in mice is greater than 2000 mg/kg and that repeated oral administrations of CELE for 28 days induced hepatic and renal toxicities at 1000 mg/kg in female ICR mice.

Curcumin-loaded cockle shell-derived calcium carbonate nanoparticles: A novel strategy for the treatment of lead-induced hepato-renal toxicity in rats

Lead (Pb) toxicity affects the hepatic and renal systems resulting to homeostasis imbalance. Curcumin is a strong antioxidant but has restrained clinical applications due to its poor bioavailability. Nanomedicine showed promising potentials in drug delivery and has brought forth the use of cockle shell-derived aragonite calcium carbonate nanoparticles (CSCaCO₃NP) to enhance the effectiveness and targeted delivery of curcumin (Cur). Thus, this study aimed at evaluating the therapeutic effect of curcumin-loaded CSCaCO₃NP (Cur- CSCaCO₃NP) on lead-induced hepato-renal toxicity in rats. Thirty-six male adults Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned into five groups. All groups contained six rats each except for group A, which contained 12 rats. All rats apart from the rats in group A (control) were orally administered a flat dose of 50 mg/kg of lead for four weeks. Six rats from group A and B were euthanized after four weeks of lead induction. Oral administration of curcumin (100 mg/kg) for group C and Cur-CSCaCO₃NP (50 and 100 mg/kg) for groups D and E respectively, commenced immediately after 4 weeks of lead induction which lasted for 4 weeks. All rats were euthanized at the 8th week of the experiment. Further, biochemical, histological and hematological analysis were performed. The findings revealed a biochemical, hematological and histological changes in lead-induced rats. However, treatments with the Cur-CSCaCO₃NP and free curcumin reversed the aforementioned changes. Although, Cur-CSCaCO₃NP presented better therapeutic effects on lead-induced toxicity in rats when compared to free curcumin as there was significant improvements in hematological, biochemical and histological changes which is parallel with attenuation of oxidative stress. The findings of the current study hold great prospects for Cur-CSCaCO₃NP as a novel approach for effective oral treatment of lead-induced hepato-renal impairments.

Acute and subacute dermal toxicity of ethanolic extract of Melastoma malabathricum leaves in Sprague-Dawley rats

Melastoma malabathricum is a well-known herb in Malaysia where it being used in various ways for treatment of different diseases and ailments including skin problems. The study aims to investigate acute and subacute dermal toxicity of ethanolic extract of M. malabathricum leaves following to a single or repeated doses exposure. A total of 30 female Sprague-Dawley rats were grouped into 5 groups (n = 6 per group) for both acute and subacute toxicity study. The duration for each study was determined at 14 days for acute toxicity and 28 days for subacute toxicity. The rats were topically applied with the plant extract at three different doses; 2.5%, 5.0% and 10.0% on the shaved area of dorsal skin. For acute toxicity study, rats in all three groups received single application of the extract on the first day of the experimental period, while rats in subacute toxicity study were topically applied with the extract once daily for 28 days. Throughout the respective 14-day and 28-day study periods, all rats were monitored for any changes in their physical appearance and behavioural patterns that might develop due to toxic effects of the plant. There were no mortality or abnormal physical appearance, and physiological and behavioural changes observed in all rats in both studies. Body weights, kidney and liver weights, and both haematology and serum biochemistry results showed no significant (p > 0.05) differences between all groups in both studies. All of the findings were supported by normal macroscopic and microscopic architectures of liver, kidneys and skin of all rats applied topically with the extract. This study suggests that topical application of M. malabathricum leaf ethanolic extract at 2.5%, 5% and 10% does not induce acute and subacute adverse effects on the skin or systemic toxic reactions in rats.

N-Ethyl-n-Nitrosourea Induced Leukaemia in a Mouse Model through Upregulation of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor and Evading Apoptosis

Chemical carcinogens are commonly used to investigate the biology and prognoses of various cancers. This study investigated the mechanism of leukaemogenic effects of n-ethyl-n-nitrosourea (ENU) in a mouse model. A total of 14 3-week-old male Institute of Cancer Research (ICR)-mice were used for the study. The mice were divided into groups A and B with seven mice each. Group A served as the control while group B received intraperitoneal (IP) injections of 80 mg/kg ENU twice with a one-week interval and were monitored monthly for 3 months for the development of leukaemia via blood smear examination. The mice were sacrificed humanely using a CO₂ chamber. Blood, spleen, lymph nodes, liver, kidney and lung samples were collected for blood smear examination and histopathological evaluation. The expression of angiogenic protein (VEGF), and pro and anti-apoptotic proteins (BCL2 and BAX), was detected and quantified using Western blot technique. Leukaemia was confirmed by the presence of numerous blast cells in the peripheral blood smear in group B. Similarly, the VEGF and BCL2 proteins were significantly (p < 0.05) upregulated in group B compared to A. It is concluded that IP administration of 80 mg/kg ENU induced leukaemia in ICR-mice 12 weeks post administration through upregulation of angiogenic and anti-apoptotic proteins: VEGF and BCL2.

Ameliorative effect of curcumin on lead-induced hematological and hepatorenal toxicity in a rat model

INTRODUCTION

Lead (Pb) is a ubiquitous toxic heavy metal that inflicts numerous clinical consequences on humans. Curcumin is the principal component of turmeric, which is reported to have antioxidative properties. This study aimed at evaluating the ameliorative effects of curcumin on Pb-induced hepatorenal toxicity in a rat model.

METHODS

Thirty-six male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned into five groups with 12 rats in the control (normal saline) and six rats each for the lead-treated group (LTG) (50 mg/kg lead acetate [Pb acetate] for 4 weeks), recovery group (50 mg/kg Pb acetate for 4 weeks and left with no treatment for another 4 weeks), treatment group 1 (Cur100) (50 mg/kg Pb acetate for 4 weeks, followed by 100 mg/kg curcumin for 4 weeks), and treatment group 2 (Cur200) (50 mg/kg Pb acetate for 4 weeks, followed by 200 mg/kg curcumin for 4 weeks). All the experimental groups received oral treatments via orogastric-tube on alternate days. Pb concentration in the liver and kidney of the rats were evaluated using inductive-coupled plasma mass spectrometry techniques.

RESULTS

Pb-administered rats revealed significant alteration in oxidative status and increased Pb concentration in their liver and kidney with obvious reduction of hemogram and increased in leukogram as well as aberration in histological architecture of the liver and kidney. However, treatment with curcumin reduces the tissue Pb concentrations and ameliorates the above mention alterations.

CONCLUSIONS

The results in this study suggested that curcumin attenuates Pb-induced hepatorenal toxicity via chelating activity and inhibition of oxidative stress.

Ameliorative effect of aqueous leaf extract of Solanum aethiopicum on phenylhydrazine-induced anaemia and toxicity in rats

Solanum aethiopicum is used in ethnomedicine for the treatment of overweight, constipation and anaemia. This study evaluated the ameliorative effect of aqueous leaf extract of S. aethiopicum on phenylhydrazine-induced anaemia in rats. Acute toxicity was determined in male and female rats (n = 5/group/sex) by oral administration of single dose of up to 5000 mg/kg of the S. aethiopicum extract. The experimental rats were randomly grouped into five (5) groups of 6 rats each. Group (i) served as normal control, group (ii) negative control, group (iii) standard drug-5 mg/kg ferrous sulphate, groups (iv) and (v), 200 and 400 mg/kg of S. aethiopicum extract respectively. Phenylhydrazine (PHZ) was administered intraperitoneally at the dose of 50 mg/kg body weight for two consecutive days to groups (ii-v). After 14 days, the rats were sacrificed; blood, liver and kidney were collected. The haematological, lipid profile, liver and kidney function parameters were determined and the histopathology of the liver and kidney were examined. In acute toxicity study, no signs of toxicity or death were recorded. The study shows an observable significant (P < 0.05) increase in packed cell volume, haemoglobin and red blood cell counts at 400 mg/kg S. aethiopicum extract in both the male and female rats when compared to other groups. Solanum aethiopicum extract at the dose of 400 mg/kg reduced aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine transaminase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), urea, creatinine and chloride. The results of this study lent credence to the use of S. aethiopicum leaf as an anti-anaemic tonic with a wide margin of safety and hepato/reno-protective potentials.

The Acute Effects of Oral Administration of Phytic Acid-Chitosan-Magnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles in Mice

A nanocomposite, phytic acid-chitosan-magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (IP₆-CS-MNPs) has been used to treat colon cancer in vitro, previously. However, its potential toxicity in vivo has yet to be elucidated. Hence, the present study aimed to evaluate the acute effects of oral administration of IP₆-CS-MNPs in mice. In this study, 1000 and 2000 mg/kg body weight (b.w) of IP₆-CS-MNPs were orally administered to two different groups of BALB/c mice, once. Additionally, the mice in the control group were given only deionized water. After 14 days of post-IP₆-CS-MNPs administration, in a similar way to the untreated mice, the treated mice showed no sign of mortality and abnormalities. However, the serum urea level of mice receiving 2000 mg/kg b.w of IP₆-CS-MNPs was significantly higher than the control group (p < 0.05). The mice that received 1000 mg/kg IP₆-CS-MNPs showed a significantly higher level of serum alkaline phosphatase (ALP) compared to the control group. However, there were no significant histopathological changes seen in the liver and kidneys of treated mice compared to the untreated group.

Propionate Ameliorates Staphylococcus aureus Skin Infection by Attenuating Bacterial Growth

Staphylococcus aureus causes various diseases including skin and soft tissue infections, pneumonia, gastroenteritis, and sepsis. Antibiotic-resistant S. aureus such as methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) and multidrug-resistant S. aureus is a serious threat in healthcare-associated settings and in the communities. In this study, we investigated the effects of short-chain fatty acids, metabolites produced by commensal bacteria, on the growth of S. aureus both in vitro and in vivo. Sodium propionate (NaP) most potently inhibited the growth of MRSA and multidrug-resistant clinical isolates. Of note, only NaP, but not sodium acetate (NaA) or sodium butyrate (NaB), ameliorated MRSA skin infection, significantly lowering bacterial load, excessive cytokine production, and the size and weight of abscesses approximately by twofold. In addition, interestingly, S. aureus deficient of lipoteichoic acids (LTA) or wall teichoic acids (WTA), which are important in bacterial physiology and antimicrobial susceptibility, was more susceptible to NaP than the wild-type. Furthermore, S. aureus deficient of D-alanine motifs common in LTA and WTA was more susceptible to NaP, its growth being almost completely inhibited. Concordantly, MRSA treated with an inhibitor of D-alanylation on LTA and WTA was more susceptible to NaP, and co-treatment of NaP and a D-alanylation inhibitor further decreased the pathology of MRSA skin infection. Collectively, these results demonstrate that NaP ameliorates MRSA skin infection by attenuating the growth of S. aureus, and suggest an alternative combination treatment strategy against S. aureus infection.

α-Mangostin and Apigenin Induced Cell Cycle Arrest and Programmed Cell Death in SKOV-3 Ovarian Cancer Cells

Ovarian cancer is the fifth main cause of pre-senescent death in women. Although chemotherapy is generally an efficient treatment, its side effects and the occurrence of chemotherapeutic resistance have prompted the need for alternative treatments. In this study, α-mangostin and apigenin were evaluated as possible anticancer alternatives to the chemotherapeutic drug doxorubicin, used herein as a positive control. The ovarian adenocarcinoma cell line SKOV-3 (ATCC No. HTB77) was used as model ovarian cancer cells, whereas the skin fibroblast line CCD-986Sk (ATCC No. CRL-1947) and lung fibroblast line WI-38 (ATCC No. CCL-75) were used as model untransformed cells. Apigenin and doxorubicin inhibited the growth of SKOV-3 cells in a dose- and time-dependent manner. After 72 hr exposure, doxorubicin was mostly toxic to SKOV-3 cells, whereas apigenin was toxic to SKOV-3 cells but not CCD-986Sk and WI-38 cells. α-Mangostin was more toxic to SKOV-3 cells than to CCD-986Sk cells. A lower cell density, cell shrinkage, and more unattached (floating round) cells were observed in all treated SKOV-3 cells, but the greatest effects were observed with α-mangostin. With regard to programmed cell death, apigenin caused early apoptosis within 24 hr, whereas α-mangostin and doxorubicin caused late apoptosis and necrosis after 72 hr of exposure. Caspase-3 activity was significantly increased in α-mangostin-treated SKOV-3 cells after 12 hr of exposure, whereas only caspase-9 activity was significantly increased in apigenin-treated SKOV-3 cells at 24 hr. Both α-mangostin and apigenin arrested the cell cycle at the G₂/M phase, but after 24 and 48 hr, respectively. Significant upregulation of BCL2 (apoptosis-associated gene) and COX2 (inflammation-associated gene) transcripts was observed in apigenin- and α-mangostin-treated SKOV-3 cells, respectively. α-Mangostin and apigenin are therefore alternative options for SKOV-3 cell inhibition, with apigenin causing rapid early apoptosis related to the intrinsic apoptotic pathway, and α-mangostin likely being involved with inflammation.

Toxicological Evaluation of Phytochemical Characterized Aqueous Extract of Wild Dried Lentinus squarrosulus (Mont.) Mushroom in Rats

Lentinus squarrosulus (Mont.) is an edible wild mushroom with tough fruiting body that belongs to the family Polyporaceae. It is used in ethnomedicine for the treatment of ulcer, anaemia, cough and fever. Recent studies have demonstrated its anticancer, anti-diabetic and antioxidant properties. However, little or no information is available regarding the bioactive components and toxicological study of wild dried L. squarrosulus. Therefore, this study investigated the bioactive components of aqueous extract of boiled wild dried L. squarrosulus and its toxicological effects in rats. The extract of L. squarrosulus was subjected to GC-MS analysis. The acute toxicity test was performed by oral administration of a single dose of up to 5,000 mg/kg extract of L. squarrosulus. In subacute study, the rats were orally administered extract of L. squarrosulus at the doses of 500, 1,000 and 1,500 mg/kg body weight daily for 14 days. The haematological, lipid profile, liver and kidney function parameters were determined and the histopathology of the liver and kidney were examined. The GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of bioactive compounds; 1-tetradecene, fumaric acid, monochloride, 6-ethyloct-3-yl ester, 9-eicosene, phytol, octahydropyrrolo[1,2-a]pyrazine and 3-trifluoroacetoxypentadecane. In acute toxicity study, neither death nor toxicity sign was recorded. In the sub-acute toxicity study, significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed on creatinine, aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, total cholesterol, triglycerides and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Whilst no significant differences (p > 0.05) were observed on packed cell volume, heamoglobin, red blood cell, white blood cell and alkaline phosphatase, in all the tested doses. No histopathological alterations were recorded. Our findings revealed that aqueous extract of L. squarrosulus may have antimicrobial, antinocieptive and antioxidant properties based on the result of GC-MS analysis. Results of the toxicity test showed no deleterious effect at the tested doses, suggesting that L. squarrosulus is safe for consumption at the tested doses.

Alterations of Antioxidant Status and Mitochondrial Succinate Dehydrogenase Activity in the Liver of Wistar Strain Albino Rats Treated with by Ethanol Extracts of Annona senegalensis Pers (Annonaceae) Stem Bark

Numerous ethnomedicinal uses have been attributed to different parts of Annona senegalensis (ASE), including its uses as food and food additives. The present study investigated toxicological and antioxidant effects of 28 days administration of ethanol extracts of ASE stem bark to Wistar strain albino rats. Acute toxicity test was done to determine lethal dose in Wistar rats while sub-acute toxicity test was conducted on rats divided into four groups (A - control, B - 50 mg/kg, C - 100 mg/kg, D - 150 mg/kg, respectively and treated for 28 days. Oxidative stress markers in liver and kidney as well as hepatic succinate dehydrogenase activity in the mitochondrial and post mitochondrial fractions (PMF) were evaluated. The LD₅₀ value of ASE was > 2,000 mg/kg. White blood cell counts gradually increased, but red blood cell counts and haematocrits level decreased significantly (p < 0.05) by about 50%. Liver enzymes in the serum and mitochondrial succinate dehydrogenase activity increased significantly (p < 0.05). Superoxide dismutase and catalase activities also increased in liver mitochondria and PMF while malondialdehyde (MDA) and reduced glutathione levels increased only in the PMF. Furthermore, only MDA levels increased significantly in the kidney after 28 days extract administration. Histopathological examination showed hepatic necrosis and no obvious signs of nephrotoxicity. Anona senegalensis is relatively safe, but prolonged ingestion could induce oxidative stress and impair ATP synthesis through the modulation of the activity of mitochondrial succinate dehydrogenase.