Delayed antiretroviral therapy despite integrated treatment for tuberculosis and HIV infection

Barriers to and enablers of uptake of antiretroviral therapy in integrated HIV and tuberculosis treatment programmes in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis

INTRODUCTION

Programmes that merge management of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and tuberculosis (TB) aim to improve HIV/TB co-infected patients' access to comprehensive treatment. However, several reports from sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) indicate suboptimal uptake of antiretroviral therapy (ART) even after integration of HIV and TB treatment. This study assessed ART uptake, its barriers and enablers in programmes integrating TB and HIV treatment in SSA.

METHOD

A systematic review was performed. Seven databases were searched for eligible quantitative, qualitative and mixed-methods studies published from March 2004 through July 2019. Random-effects meta-analysis was used to obtain pooled estimates of ART uptake. A thematic approach was used to analyse and synthesise data on barriers and enablers.

RESULTS

Of 5139 references identified, 27 were included in the review: 23/27 estimated ART uptake and 10/27 assessed barriers to and/or enablers of ART uptake. The pooled ART uptake was 53% (95% CI: 42, 63%) and between-study heterogeneity was high (I2 = 99.71%, p < 0.001). WHO guideline on collaborative TB/HIV activities and sample size were associated with heterogeneity. There were statistically significant subgroup effects with high heterogeneity after subgroup analyses by region, guideline on collaborative TB/HIV activities, study design, and sample size. The most frequently described socioeconomic and individual level barriers to ART uptake were stigma, low income, and younger age group. The most frequently reported health system-related barriers were limited staff capacity, shortages in medical supplies, lack of infrastructure, and poor adherence to or lack of treatment guidelines. Clinical barriers included intolerance to anti-TB drugs, fear of drug toxicity, and contraindications to antiretrovirals. Health system enablers included good management of the procurement, supply, and dispensation chain; convenience and accessibility of treatment services; and strong staff capacity. Availability of psychosocial support was the most frequently reported enabler of uptake at the community level.

CONCLUSIONS

In SSA, programmes integrating treatment of TB and HIV do not, in general, achieve high ART uptake but we observe a net improvement in uptake after WHO issued the 2012 guidelines on collaborative TB/HIV activities. The recurrence of specific modifiable system-level and patient-level factors in the literature reveals key intervention points to improve ART uptake in these programmes. Systematic review registration: CRD42019131933.

Delays in HIV and TB diagnosis and treatment initiation in co-infected patients in Colombia

We investigated the delays in the diagnosis of tuberculosis and/or HIV, their treatment initiation, and factors associated with each delay. All drug-susceptible tuberculosis cases diagnosed in 2014 and 2015 in Colombia, with a confirmed diagnosis of HIV were included. A total of 1909 patients were registered with tuberculosis/HIV co-infection. Seventy-nine percent of patients were men, 50% had sputum smear-negative tuberculosis, culture was done in 50% of cases, 68.5% had <200 CD4 cell count at diagnosis, and 35% had concurrent tuberculosis/HIV diagnosis. Delays in the tuberculosis diagnosis were identified in 54.8% of the patients, and delays in tuberculosis and HIV treatment initiation in 41.8% and 27.4%, respectively. The risk factors associated with delay in tuberculosis diagnosis were age between 15–34 and ≥45 years, and those patients who received tuberculin skin test. The risk factor associated with antiretroviral therapy initiation delay was previously-treated tuberculosis patients after failure. It is necessary to implement strategies for early detection and treatment initiation of HIV and to use rapid test for tuberculosis diagnosis in this population.

Effect of TB/HIV Integration on TB and HIV Indicators in Rural Ugandan Health Facilities

BACKGROUND

The World Health Organization recommends integrating services for patients coinfected with tuberculosis (TB) and HIV. We assessed the effect of TB/HIV integration on antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation and TB treatment outcomes among TB/HIV-coinfected patients using data collected from 14 rural health facilities during 2 previous TB and HIV quality of care studies.

METHODS

A facility was considered to have integrated TB/HIV services if patients with TB/HIV had combined treatment for both illnesses by 1 provider or care team at 1 treatment location. We analyzed the effect of integration by conducting a cross-sectional analysis of integrated and nonintegrated facility periods comparing performance on ART initiation and TB treatment outcomes. We conducted logistic regression, with the patient as the unit of analysis, controlling for other intervention effects, adjusting for age and sex, and clustering by health facility.

RESULTS

From January 2012 to June 2014, 996 patients with TB were registered, 97% were tested for HIV, and 404 (42%) were HIV-positive. Excluding transfers, 296 patients were eligible for analysis with 117 and 179 from nonintegrated and integrated periods, respectively. Being treated in a facility with TB/HIV integration was associated with lower mortality [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 0.38, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.18 to 0.77], but there was no difference in the proportion initiating ART (aOR = 1.34, 95% CI: 0.40 to 4.47), with TB treatment success (aOR = 1.43, 95% CI: 0.73 to 2.82), lost to follow-up (aOR = 1.64, 95% CI: 0.53 to 5.04), or failure (aOR = 1.21, 95% CI: 0.34 to 4.32).

CONCLUSIONS

TB/HIV service integration was associated with lower mortality during TB treatment even in settings with suboptimal proportions of patients completing TB treatment and starting on ART.

Global HIV neurology: a comprehensive review

: Neurological conditions associated with HIV remain major contributors to morbidity and mortality and are increasingly recognized in the aging population on long-standing combination antiretroviral therapy (cART). Importantly, growing evidence shows that the central nervous system (CNS) may serve as a reservoir for viral replication, which has major implications for HIV eradication strategies. Although there has been major progress in the last decade in our understanding of the pathogenesis, burden, and impact of neurological conditions associated with HIV infection, significant scientific gaps remain. In many resource-limited settings, antiretrovirals considered second or third line in the United States, which carry substantial neurotoxicity, remain mainstays of treatment, and patients continue to present with severe immunosuppression and CNS opportunistic infections. Despite this, increased global access to cART has coincided with an aging HIV-positive population with cognitive sequelae, cerebrovascular disease, and peripheral neuropathy. Further neurological research in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs) is needed to address the burden of neurological complications in HIV-positive patients, particularly regarding CNS viral reservoirs and their effects on eradication.

HIV serostatus disclosure in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: a systematic review

HIV status disclosure among people living with HIV/AIDS has been shown to have a number of both personal and public health benefits, but rates of HIV status disclosure remain low in many African countries, including the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). This systematic review uses the Disclosure Process Model to examine the factors involved in serostatus disclosure and nondisclosure to various persons in the lives of people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) in the DRC, as well as the specific outcomes of their disclosure or nondisclosure. MEDLINE/PubMed, Embase, Web of Science, Global Health, and PsycINFO were searched and research studies were included if: (i) the study discussed disclosure of HIV status; (ii) the study population included HIV-infected people in DRC; and (iii) the study was published in English. Fourteen articles met the inclusion criteria and were included in the study. Factors contributing to nondisclosure were generally associated with high stigma of HIV in adults and concern for emotional wellbeing when disclosing to HIV positive minors. Factors contributing to disclosure among adults were increased social support and religion. In disclosing to HIV positive minors, increasing age and health benefits were identified as approach goals that supported disclosure. The findings highlight the importance of understanding the avoidance and approach goals involved in HIV status disclosure among populations living in the DRC. Interventions and future research directed at increasing HIV disclosure among Congolese PLWHA should move beyond individual-level to consider multilevel factors including circumstantial social behaviors.

High uptake of antiretroviral therapy among HIV-positive TB patients receiving co-located services in Swaziland

BACKGROUND

Swaziland has the highest adult HIV prevalence and second highest rate of TB/HIV coinfection globally. Recently, the Ministry of Health and partners have increased integration and co-location of TB/HIV services, but the timing of antiretroviral therapy (ART) relative to TB treatment-a marker of program quality and predictor of outcomes-is unknown.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective analysis of programmatic data from 11 purposefully-sampled facilities to evaluate timely ART provision for HIV-positive TB patients enrolled on TB treatment between July-November 2014. Timely ART was defined as within two weeks of TB treatment initiation for patients with CD4<50/μL or missing, and within eight weeks otherwise. Descriptive statistics were estimated and logistic regression used to assess factors independently associated with timely ART.

RESULTS

Of 466 HIV-positive TB patients, 51.5% were male, median age was 35 (interquartile range [IQR]: 29-42), and median CD4 was 137/μL (IQR: 58-268). 189 (40.6%) were on ART prior to, and five (1.8%) did not receive ART within six months of TB treatment initiation. Median time to ART after TB treatment initiation was 15 days (IQR: 14-28). Almost 90% started ART within eight weeks, and 45.5% of those with CD4<50/μL started within two weeks. Using thresholds for "timely ART" according to baseline CD4 count, 73.3% of patients overall received timely ART after TB treatment initiation. Patients with CD4 50-200/μL or ≥200/μL had significantly higher odds of timely ART than patients with CD4<50/μL, with adjusted odds ratios of 11.5 (95% confidence interval [CI]: 5.0-26.6) and 9.6 (95% CI: 4.6-19.9), respectively. TB cure or treatment completion was achieved by 71.1% of patients at six months, but this was not associated with timely ART.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates the relative success of integrated and co-located TB/HIV services in Swaziland, and shows that timely ART uptake for HIV-positive TB patients can be achieved in resource-limited, but integrated settings. Gaps remain in getting patients with CD4<50/μL to receive ART within the recommended two weeks post TB treatment initiation.

Challenges Across the HIV Care Continuum for Patients With HIV/TB Co-infection in Atlanta, GA [corrected]

Background

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) for persons with HIV infection prevents tuberculosis (TB) disease. Additionally, sequential ART after initiation of TB treatment improves outcomes. We examined ART use, retention in care, and viral suppression (VS) before, during, and 3 years following TB treatment for an inner-city cohort in the United States.

Methods

Retrospective cohort study among persons treated for culture-confirmed TB between 2008 and 2015 at an inner-city hospital.

Results

Among 274 persons with culture-confirmed TB, 96 (35%) had HIV co-infection, including 23 (24%) new HIV diagnoses and 73 (76%) previous diagnoses. Among those with known HIV prior to TB, the median time of known HIV was 6 years, and only 10 (14%) were on ART at the time of TB diagnosis. The median CD4 at TB diagnosis was 87 cells/uL. Seventy-four (81%) patients received ART during treatment for TB, and 47 (52%) has VS at the end of TB treatment. Only 32% of patients had continuous VS 3 years after completing TB treatment. There were 3 TB recurrences and 3 deaths post–TB treatment; none of these patients had retention or VS after TB treatment.

Conclusions

Among persons with active TB co-infected with HIV, we found that the majority had known HIV and were not on ART prior to TB diagnosis, and retention in care and VS post–TB treatment were very low. Strengthening the HIV care continuum is needed to improve HIV outcomes and further reduce rates of active TB/HIV co-infection in our and similar settings.

Tuberculosis Treatment Outcomes Among HIV/TB-Coinfected Children in the International Epidemiology Databases to Evaluate AIDS (IeDEA) Network

INTRODUCTION

Management of tuberculosis (TB) is challenging in HIV/TB-coinfected children. The World Health Organization recommends nucleic acid amplification tests for TB diagnosis, a 4-drug regimen including ethambutol during intensive phase (IP) of treatment, and initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) within 8 weeks of TB diagnosis. We investigated TB treatment outcomes by diagnostic modality, IP regimen, and ART status.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study among HIV/TB-coinfected children enrolled at the International Epidemiology Databases to Evaluate AIDS treatment sites from 2012 to 2014. We modeled TB outcome using multivariable logistic regression including diagnostic modality, IP regimen, and ART status.

RESULTS

Among the 386 HIV-infected children diagnosed with TB, 20% had microbiologic confirmation of TB, and 20% had unfavorable TB outcomes. During IP, 78% were treated with a 4-drug regimen. Thirty-one percent were receiving ART at the time of TB diagnosis, and 32% were started on ART within 8 weeks of TB diagnosis. Incidence of ART initiation within 8 weeks of TB diagnosis was higher for those with favorable TB outcomes (64%) compared with those with unfavorable outcomes (40%) (P = 0.04). Neither diagnostic modality (odds ratio 1.77; 95% confidence interval: 0.86 to 3.65) nor IP regimen (odds ratio 0.88; 95% confidence interval: 0.43 to 1.80) was associated with TB outcome.

DISCUSSION

In this multinational study of HIV/TB-coinfected children, many were not managed as per World Health Organization guidelines. Children with favorable TB outcomes initiated ART sooner than children with unfavorable outcomes. These findings highlight the importance of early ART for children with HIV/TB coinfection, and reinforce the need for implementation research to improve pediatric TB management.

Continuous quality improvement interventions to improve long-term outcomes of antiretroviral therapy in women who initiated therapy during pregnancy or breastfeeding in the Democratic Republic of Congo: design of an open-label, parallel, group randomized trial

Background

Despite the rapid adoption of the World Health Organization’s 2013 guidelines, children continue to be infected with HIV perinatally because of sub-optimal adherence to the continuum of HIV care in maternal and child health (MCH) clinics. To achieve the UNAIDS goal of eliminating mother-to-child HIV transmission, multiple, adaptive interventions need to be implemented to improve adherence to the HIV continuum.

Methods

The aim of this open label, parallel, group randomized trial is to evaluate the effectiveness of Continuous Quality Improvement (CQI) interventions implemented at facility and health district levels to improve retention in care and virological suppression through 24 months postpartum among pregnant and breastfeeding women receiving ART in MCH clinics in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of Congo. Prior to randomization, the current monitoring and evaluation system will be strengthened to enable collection of high quality individual patient-level data necessary for timely indicators production and program outcomes monitoring to inform CQI interventions. Following randomization, in health districts randomized to CQI, quality improvement (QI) teams will be established at the district level and at MCH clinics level. For 18 months, QI teams will be brought together quarterly to identify key bottlenecks in the care delivery system using data from the monitoring system, develop an action plan to address those bottlenecks, and implement the action plan at the level of their district or clinics.

Discussion

If proven to be effective, CQI as designed here, could be scaled up rapidly in resource-scarce settings to accelerate progress towards the goal of an AIDS free generation.

Trial registration

The protocol was retrospectively registered on February 7, 2017. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03048669.

Impact of WHO 2010 Guidelines on Antiretroviral Therapy Initiation among Patients with HIV-Associated Tuberculosis in Clinics with and without Onsite HIV Services in the Democratic Republic of Congo

Background. We assessed the impact of WHO's 2010 guidelines that removed the requirement of CD4 count before ART, on timely initiation of ART among HIV/TB patients in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). Methods. Data collected to monitor implementation of provider initiated HIV testing and counseling (PITC) and linkage to HIV care from 65 and 13 TB clinics in Kinshasa and Kisangani, respectively, between November 2010 and June 2013. Results. Prior to the WHO's 2010 guidelines, in Kinshasa, 79.1% (401/507) of HIV/TB patients referred for HIV services were initiated on ART in clinics with onsite ART services compared to 50.0% (63/123) in clinics without. Following the implementation of the new guidelines, 89.8% (714/795) and 93.0% (345/371) of HIV/TB patients referred for HIV services were initiated on ART, respectively, in clinics with onsite and without onsite ART services. Similarly, in Kisangani, 69.7% (53/120) and 36.4% (16/44) in clinics with and without onsite ART service, respectively, were initiated on ART prior to the 2010 guidelines and 88.8% (135/152) and 72.6% (106/146), respectively, after the new guidelines. Conclusion. Though implementation of the 2010 guidelines increased the proportion of HIV/TB patients initiated on ART substantially, it remained below the 100% target, particularly in clinics without onsite ART services.

HIV treatment cascade in tuberculosis patients

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Globally, the number of deaths associated with tuberculosis (TB) and HIV coinfection remains unacceptably high. We review the evidence around the impact of strengthening the HIV treatment cascade in TB patients and explore recent findings about how best to deliver integrated TB/HIV services.

RECENT FINDINGS

There is clear evidence that the timely provision of antiretroviral therapy (ART) reduces mortality in TB/HIV coinfected adults. Despite this, globally in 2013, only around a third of known HIV-positive TB cases were treated with ART. Although there is some recent evidence exploring the barriers to achieve high coverage of HIV testing and ART initiation in TB patients, our understanding of which factors are most important and how best to address these within different health systems remains incomplete. There are some examples of good practice in the delivery of integrated TB/HIV services to improve the HIV treatment cascade. However, evidence of the impact of such strategies is of relatively low quality for informing integrated TB/HIV programming more broadly. In most settings, there remain barriers to higher-level organizational and functional integration.

SUMMARY

There remains a need for commitment to patient-centred integrated TB/HIV care in countries affected by the dual epidemic. There is a need for better quality evidence around how best to deliver integrated services to strengthen the HIV treatment cascade in TB patients, both at primary healthcare level and within community settings.

The Impact of Implementation Fidelity on Mortality Under a CD4-Stratified Timing Strategy for Antiretroviral Therapy in Patients With Tuberculosis

Among patients with tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus type 1, CD4-stratified initiation of antiretroviral therapy (ART) is recommended, with earlier ART in those with low CD4 counts. However, the impact of implementation fidelity to this recommendation is unknown. We examined a prospective cohort study of 395 adult patients diagnosed with tuberculosis and human immunodeficiency virus between August 2007 and November 2009 in Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. ART was to be initiated after 1 month of tuberculosis treatment at a CD4 count of <100 cells/mm(3) or World Health Organization stage 4 (other than extrapulmonary tuberculosis) and after 2 months of tuberculosis treatment at a CD4 count of 100-350 cells/mm(3). We used the parametric g-formula to estimate the impact of implementation fidelity on 6-month mortality. Observed implementation fidelity was low (46%); 54% of patients either experienced delays in ART initiation or did not initiate ART, which could be avoided under perfect implementation fidelity. The observed mortality risk was 12.0% (95% confidence interval (CI): 8.2, 15.7); under complete (counterfactual) implementation fidelity, the mortality risk was 7.8% (95% CI: 2.4, 12.3), corresponding to a risk reduction of 4.2% (95% CI: 0.3, 8.1) and a preventable fraction of 35.1% (95% CI: 2.9, 67.9). Strategies to achieve high implementation fidelity to CD4-stratified ART timing are needed to maximize survival benefit.