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Zhao M, Shi J, Li W, Guan C, Sun C, Peng Y, Zheng J. Metabolic Activation of Gemfibrozil Mediated by Cytochrome P450 Enzymes and Sulfotransferases. Chem Res Toxicol 2022; 35:1257-1266. [PMID: 35763595 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.2c00054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Gemfibrozil (GEM), a lipid regulator, is a fibric acid derivative widely used in the treatment of hyperlipidemia. It has been reported that GEM can induce acute liver injury in the course of therapy in clinical practice, so it is necessary to elucidate the mechanisms of toxic action. The present study focused on metabolic activation of GEM, possibly participating in GEM-mediated liver injury. A benzylic alcohol metabolite (M1), along with a phenol metabolite (M2), was detected in microsomal incubations, rat primary hepatocyte culturing, and rats given GEM. A GSH conjugate (M3) was detected in cultured rat hepatocytes after exposure to GEM. Formation of M1 was found to be NADPH dependent, and generation of M3 required M1 and 3'-phosphoadenosine-5'-phosphosulfate. It is most likely that GEM was biotransformed to M1, which was further metabolized to a sulfate. The resulting sulfate was reactive to bio-thiols. Cytochrome P450 and sulfotransferases participated in the phase I and phase II reactions, respectively. M1 and M3 were chemically synthesized, and their structures were characterized by mass spectrometry and NMR. The present study has particular value for elucidating the mechanism of liver injury caused by GEM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Zhao
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Junzu Shi
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Wei Li
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Chunjing Guan
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Chen Sun
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Ying Peng
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China
| | - Jiang Zheng
- Wuya College of Innovation, Shenyang Pharmaceutical University, Shenyang, Liaoning 110016, P. R. China.,State Key Laboratory of Functions and Applications of Medicinal Plants, Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutics of Guizhou Province, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, P. R. China.,Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution, Monitoring and Disease Control, Ministry of Education, Guizhou Medical University, Guiyang, Guizhou 550025, P. R. China
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Rosenberger L, von Essen C, Khutia A, Kühn C, Urbahns K, Georgi K, Hartmann RW, Badolo L. Crystalline Sponges as a Sensitive and Fast Method for Metabolite Identification: Application to Gemfibrozil and its Phase I and II Metabolites. Drug Metab Dispos 2020; 48:587-593. [DOI: 10.1124/dmd.120.091140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Ravindran S, Jadhav A, Surve P, Lonsane G, Honrao P, Nanda B. Technologies and strategies to characterize and quantitate metabolites in drug discovery and development. Biomed Chromatogr 2014; 28:1547-53. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.3309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2014] [Revised: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Selvan Ravindran
- Departments of Bio-Analytical and Biotransformation, Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; Sai Life Sciences Limited; Building 1, Plot No 2, Chrysalis Enclave, International Bio-Tech Park, Phase-II, Hinjewadi Pune- 411 057 Maharashtra India
| | - Amol Jadhav
- Departments of Bio-Analytical and Biotransformation, Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; Sai Life Sciences Limited; Building 1, Plot No 2, Chrysalis Enclave, International Bio-Tech Park, Phase-II, Hinjewadi Pune- 411 057 Maharashtra India
| | - Prashant Surve
- Departments of Bio-Analytical and Biotransformation, Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; Sai Life Sciences Limited; Building 1, Plot No 2, Chrysalis Enclave, International Bio-Tech Park, Phase-II, Hinjewadi Pune- 411 057 Maharashtra India
| | - Ganesh Lonsane
- Departments of Bio-Analytical and Biotransformation, Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; Sai Life Sciences Limited; Building 1, Plot No 2, Chrysalis Enclave, International Bio-Tech Park, Phase-II, Hinjewadi Pune- 411 057 Maharashtra India
| | - Pradnya Honrao
- Departments of Bio-Analytical and Biotransformation, Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; Sai Life Sciences Limited; Building 1, Plot No 2, Chrysalis Enclave, International Bio-Tech Park, Phase-II, Hinjewadi Pune- 411 057 Maharashtra India
| | - Bidyut Nanda
- Departments of Bio-Analytical and Biotransformation, Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics; Sai Life Sciences Limited; Building 1, Plot No 2, Chrysalis Enclave, International Bio-Tech Park, Phase-II, Hinjewadi Pune- 411 057 Maharashtra India
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Krkošek WH, Koziar SA, White RL, Gagnon GA. Identification of reaction products from reactions of free chlorine with the lipid-regulator gemfibrozil. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:1414-1422. [PMID: 21093008 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2010.10.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2010] [Revised: 10/19/2010] [Accepted: 10/26/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
High global consumption rates have led to the occurrence of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in wastewater. The use of chlorine to disinfect wastewater prior to release into the environment may convert PhACs into uncharacterized chlorinated by-products. In this investigation, chlorination of a common pharmaceutical, the antihyperlipidemic agent gemfibrozil, was documented. Gemfibrozil (2,2-dimethyl-5-(2,5-dimethylphenoxy)pentanoic acid) was reacted with sodium hypochlorite and product formation was monitored by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The incorporation of one, two or three chlorine atoms into the aromatic region of gemfibrozil was demonstrated using negative-ion electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI-MS) and tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS/MS). Further analysis using (1)H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy identified the reaction products as 4'-ClGem (5-(4-chloro-2,5-dimethylphenoxy)-2,2-dimethylpentanoic acid) 4',6'-diClGem (5-(4,6-dichloro-2,5-dimethylphenoxy)-2,2-dimethylpentanoic acid), and 3',4',6'-triClGem (5-(3,4,6-trichloro-2,5-dimethylphenoxy)-2,2-dimethylpentanoic acid), products consistent with electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions. The rapid reaction of gemfibrozil with free chlorine at pH conditions relevant to water treatment indicates that a mixture of chlorinated gemfibrozils is likely to be found in wastewater disinfected with chlorine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy H Krkošek
- Department of Civil and Resource Engineering, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada
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Asha S, Vidyavathi M. Role of Human Liver Microsomes in In Vitro Metabolism of Drugs—A Review. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2009; 160:1699-722. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-009-8689-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 108] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2009] [Accepted: 06/05/2009] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
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Rapid oxidation of ring methyl groups is the primary mechanism of biotransformation of gemfibrozil by the fungus Cunninghamella elegans. Arch Microbiol 2009; 191:509-17. [DOI: 10.1007/s00203-009-0480-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2009] [Revised: 04/08/2009] [Accepted: 04/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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