Net energy content of rice bran, corn germ meal, corn gluten feed, peanut meal, and sunflower meal in growing pigs

Effect of Miscellaneous Meals Replacing Soybean Meal in Feed on Growth Performance, Serum Biochemical Parameters, and Microbiota Composition of 25-50 kg Growing Pigs

The present study aims to determine the effect of miscellaneous meals (rapeseed meal, cottonseed meal, and sunflower meal) replacing soybean meal in feed on growth performance, apparent digestibility of nutrients, serum biochemical parameters, serum free amino acid content, microbiota composition and SCFAs content in growing pigs (25-50 kg). A total of 72 (Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire) growing pigs with initial weights of 25.79 ± 0.23 kg were randomly divided into three treatments. The pigs were fed corn-soybean meal (CON), corn-soybean-miscellaneous meals (CSM), and corn-miscellaneous meals (CMM). Each treatment included six replicates with four pigs per pen (n = 24, 12 barrows and 12 gilts). Soybean meal accounted for 22.10% of the basal diet in the CON group. In the CSM group, miscellaneous meals partially replaced soybean meal with a mixture of 4.50% rapeseed meal, 3.98% cottonseed meal, and 4.50% sunflower meal. In the CMM group, miscellaneous meals entirely replaced soybean meal with a mixture of 8.50% rapeseed meal, 8.62% cottonseed meal, and 8.5% sunflower. The results showed that compared with the CON, the CSM and CMM groups significantly improved the average daily gain (ADG) of growing pigs during the 25-50 kg stage (p < 0.05) but had no effects on average daily feed intake (ADFI) and average daily feed intake/average daily gain (F/G) (p > 0.05). Moreover, the CMM group significantly reduced nutrient apparent digestibility of gross energy compared with the CON group. The serum biochemical parameters results showed that the CSM group significantly improved the contents of total protein (TP) compared with the CON group (p < 0.05). The CMM group significantly improved the contents of total protein (TP), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) compared with the CON group in serum (p < 0.05). In comparison with the CON group, the CMM group also significantly improved lysine (Lys), threonine (Thr), valine (Val), isoleucine (Ile), leucine (Leu), phenylalanine (Phe), arginine (Arg), and citrulline (Cit) levels in serum (p < 0.05). However, the CMM group significantly decreased non-essential amino acid content glycine (Gly) in serum compared with CON (p < 0.05), while compared with the CON group, the CSM and CMM groups had no significant effects on the relative abundance, the alpha-diversity, or the beta-diversity of fecal microbiota. Moreover, compared with the CON group, the CSM group significantly increased butyric acid and valeric acid contents of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) in feces (p < 0.05). In contrast to the CON group, the CMM group significantly reduced the contents of SCFAs in feces, including acetic acid, propionic acid, and isobutyric acid (p < 0.05). Collectively, the results of the present study indicate that miscellaneous meals (rapeseed meal, cottonseed meal, and sunflower meal) can partially replace the soybean meal and significantly improve the growth performance of growing pigs during the 25-50 kg stage. Thus, miscellaneous meals are a suitable protein source as basal diets to replace soybean meals for 25-50 kg growing pigs. These results can be helpful to further develop miscellaneous meals as a functional alternative feed ingredient to soybean meal.

Cellulase with Bacillus velezensis improves physicochemical characteristics, microbiota and metabolites of corn germ meal during two-stage co-fermentation

Corn germ meal (CGM) is one of the major byproducts of corn starch extraction. Although CGM has rich fiber content, it lacks good protein content and amino acid balance, and therefore cannot be fully utilized as animal feed. In this study, we investigated the processing effect of cellulase synergized with Bacillus velezensis on the nutritional value of pretreated CGM (PCGM) in two-stage solid-state fermentation (SSF). High-throughput sequencing technology was used to explore the dynamic changes in microbial diversity. The results showed that compared with four combinations of B. velezensis + Lactiplantibacillus plantarum (PCGM-BL), cellulase + L. plantarum (PCGM-CL),control group (PCGM-CK), and cellulase + B. velezensis + L. plantarum (PCGM-BCL), the fourth combination of PCGM-BCL significantly improved the nutritional characteristics of PCGM. After two-stage SSF (48 h), viable bacterial count and contents of crude protein (CP) and trichloroacetic acid-soluble protein (TCA-SP) all were increased in PCGM-BCL (p < 0.05), while the pH was reduced to 4.38 ± 0.02. In addition, compared with PCGM-BL, the cellulose degradation rate increased from 5.02 to 50.74%, increasing the amounts of short-chain fatty acids (216.61 ± 2.74 to 1727.55 ± 23.00 µg/g) and total amino acids (18.60 to 21.02%) in PCGM-BCL. Furthermore, high-throughput sequencing analysis revealed significant dynamic changes in microbial diversity. In the first stage of PCGM-BCL fermentation, Bacillus was the dominant genus (99.87%), which after 24 h of anaerobic fermentation changed to lactobacillus (37.45%). Kyoto Encylopaedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) metabolic pathway analysis revealed that the pathways related to the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, cofactors, and vitamins accounted for more than 10% of the enriched pathways throughout the fermentation period. Concisely, we show that cellulase can effectively improve the nutritional value of PCGM when synergized with B. velezensis in two-stage SSF.

Designing Nutrition for Health-Incorporating Dietary By-Products into Poultry Feeds to Create Functional Foods with Insights into Health Benefits, Risks, Bioactive Compounds, Food Component Functionality and Safety Regulations

This review delves into the concept of nutrition by design, exploring the relationship between poultry production, the utilization of dietary by-products to create functional foods, and their impact on human health. Functional foods are defined as products that extend beyond their basic nutritional value, offering potential benefits in disease prevention and management. Various methods, including extraction, fermentation, enrichment, biotechnology, and nanotechnology, are employed to obtain bioactive compounds for these functional foods. This review also examines the innovative approach of enhancing livestock diets to create functional foods through animal-based methods. Bioactive compounds found in these functional foods, such as essential fatty acids, antioxidants, carotenoids, minerals, vitamins, and bioactive peptides, are highlighted for their potential in promoting well-being and mitigating chronic diseases. Additionally, the review explores the functionality of food components within these products, emphasizing the critical roles of bioaccessibility, bioactivity, and bioavailability in promoting health. The importance of considering key aspects in the design of enhanced poultry diets for functional food production is thoroughly reviewed. The safety of these foods through the establishment of regulations and guidelines was reviewed. It is concluded that the integration of nutrition by design principles empowers individuals to make informed choices that can prioritize their health and well-being. By incorporating functional foods rich in bioactive compounds, consumers can proactively take steps to prevent and manage health issues, ultimately contributing to a healthier society and lifestyle.

Research Advances in the High-Value Utilization of Peanut Meal Resources and Its Hydrolysates: A Review

Peanut meal (PM) is a by-product of extracting oil from peanut kernels. Although peanut meal contains protein, carbohydrates, minerals, vitamins, and small amounts of polyphenols and fiber, it has long been used as a feed in the poultry and livestock industries due to its coarse texture and unpleasant taste. It is less commonly utilized in the food processing industry. In recent years, there has been an increasing amount of research conducted on the deep processing of by-products from oil crops, resulting in the high-value processing and utilization of by-products from various oil crops. These include peanut meal, which undergoes treatments such as enzymatic hydrolysis in industries like food, chemical, and aquaculture. The proteins, lipids, polyphenols, fibers, and other components present in these by-products and hydrolysates can be incorporated into products for further utilization. This review focuses on the research progress in various fields, such as the food processing, breeding, and industrial fields, regarding the high-value utilization of peanut meal and its hydrolysates. The aim is to provide valuable insights and strategies for maximizing the utilization of peanut meal resources.

Determination of metabolisable and net energy contents of corn fed to Arbor Acres broilers and Beijing You chickens

This study was done to compare the energy and nutrient utilisation of corn in Arbor Acres (AA) broilers and Beijing You (BJY) chickens. BJY chickens with the same age as AA broilers were named BJY1 chickens, and with the same body weight as AA broilers were named BJY2 chickens. Three groups of broilers (36 male AA broilers, 72 male BJY1 chickens, and 36 male BJY2 chickens), 2 treatments per group, 6 replicates per treatment, 3 chickens or 6 chickens per replicate. During each period, birds were fed in chambers for 11 days, including 5 days for adaptation to the feed, 3 days for excreta and gas data collection and another 3 days for fasting were recorded. Results showed that the fasting heat production (FHP) of AA, BJY1 and BJY2 chickens gradually stabilised after fasting for 72 h, the FHP of AA, BJY1 and BJY2 chickens were 486.54, 536.22 and 548.90 KJ/kg BW^0.70 /day respectively. AA broilers had significantly lower (p < 0.01) apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of starch in corn than that of BJY1 and BJY2 chickens, whereas there were no significant differences (p > 0.05) observed in ATTD of dry matter, crude protein, ether extract and crude fibre. The apparent metabolisable energy (AME) values of corn in AA, BJY1 and BJY2 chickens were 16.18, 16.81, and 16.39 MJ/kg dry matter (DM) and the corresponding nitrogen-corrected AME (AMEn) values were 15.71, 16.38 and 15.99 MJ/kg DM respectively. The net energy (NE) values of corn in AA, BJY1 and BJY2 chickens were 12.03, 12.28 and 11.97 MJ/kg DM respectively. In conclusion, BJY chickens had a higher maintenance energy requirement than that of AA broilers, and AA broilers of the same age and weight as BJY chickens showed no significant differences in AME, AMEn and NE values of corn.

Effects of Aspergillus oryzae prebiotic on dietary energy and nutrient digestibility of growing pigs

The objective of this study was to determine the effects of Aspergillus oryzae prebiotic (AOP) on nutrient digestibility in growing pigs fed high-fiber diets. Eighteen growing barrows (initial body weight = 50.6 ± 4.9 kg) were surgically equipped with a T-cannula at the distal ileum. Corn and soybean meal-based diets were formulated with fiber from cereal grain byproducts corn (distillers dried grains with solubles, DDGS), rice (rice bran, RB), or wheat (wheat middlings, WM) to meet or exceed all nutrient requirements for 50 to 75 kg growing pigs. Three additional diets were formulated to contain 0.05% AOP supplemented at the expense of corn in the DDGS diet (DDGS + AOP), RB diet (RB + AOP), and WM diet (WM + AOP). All diets contained 0.5% of titanium dioxide as an indigestible marker. Pigs were allotted randomly to a triplicated 6 × 2 Youden square design with six diets and two successive periods. Ileal digesta and fecal samples were collected for 2 d after a 21-d adaptation period, and dry matter (DM), gross energy (GE), crude protein (CP), ether extract (EE), neutral detergent fiber (NDF), and ash were analyzed to calculate apparent ileal digestibility (AID) and apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD). Standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) was calculated by correcting AID with basal endogenous AA losses from the same set of pigs. Pigs fed the DDGS+AOP diet had greater (P < 0.05) AID of EE compared with those fed the DDGS diet. However, supplementation of AOP did not (P > 0.05) affect AID of GE, DM, CP, NDF, ash or SID of AA of any high-fiber diet. Supplementation of 0.05% AOP increased (P < 0.05) ATTD of DM, GE, CP, NDF, and ash in DDGS, RB, and WM diets. Diet digestible energy was 35 kcal/kg greater (P < 0.05) in pigs fed AOP supplemented diets compared with those fed diets without AOP. In conclusion, supplementation of AOP increased ATTD of nutrients and energy value in high-fiber diets containing DDGS, RB, or WM.

Metabolizable energy and apparent total tract digestibility of energy and nutrients differ among samples of sunflower meal and sunflower expellers fed to growing pigs

An experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that there are no differences among samples of sunflower coproducts in apparent total tract digestibility (ATTD) of gross energy (GE), crude protein (CP), and acid hydrolyzed ether extract (AEE), total dietary fiber (TDF), insoluble dietary fiber, soluble dietary fiber (SDF), or in metabolizable energy (ME) regardless of where the ingredient was produced. Six samples of sunflower meal (SFM) were obtained from the United States (two samples), Ukraine (two samples), Hungary, and Italy. A sample of sunflower expellers (SFE) from the United States was also used. A corn-based control diet and 7 diets containing corn and each sample of sunflower coproducts were formulated. Sixty-four barrows (initial weight = 31.5 ± 3.2 kg) were allotted to 8 diets using a randomized complete block design with four blocks of pigs from four different weaning groups. Pigs were housed individually in metabolism crates and feed was provided at three times energy requirement for maintenance. Feces and urine were collected for four days after seven days of adaptation to diets. Results indicated that the ATTD of GE and CP in SFE was less (P < 0.05) than in SFM, but ATTD of AEE in SFE was greater (P < 0.05) compared with SFM. No difference in ME between SFM and SFE was observed. The ATTD of GE and TDF in SFM from Ukraine and Hungary was greater (P < 0.05) than in SFM from the United States or Italy. The ATTD of AEE did not differ among SFM samples with the exception that ATTD of AEE in the U.S. 2 sample was greater (P < 0.05) than in the other samples. The ATTD of SDF was less (P < 0.05) in the U.S. 1 sample and the sample from Italy than in the other samples. The ATTD of TDF was greater in the Ukraine 2 sample of SFM (P < 0.05) than in the two U.S. samples. The ME in the SFM samples from Ukraine and in the SFM from Hungary was greater (P < 0.05) than in the U.S. 1 sample and the SFM from Italy. In conclusion, ATTD of GE and nutrients differed between SFM and SFE, but the ATTD of TDF and the ME in SFM was not different from value for SFE. Among SFM samples, relatively small variations in ATTD of GE, AEE, and CP were observed, but ME and digestibility of TDF varied.

Co-fermented defatted rice bran alters gut microbiota and improves growth performance, antioxidant capacity, immune status and intestinal permeability of finishing pigs

Based on preparation of co-fermented defatted rice bran (DFRB) using Bacillus subtilis, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Lactobacillus plantarum and phytase, the present study aimed to evaluate the effects of co-fermented DFRB on growth performance, antioxidant capacity, immune status, gut microbiota and permeability in finishing pigs. Ninety finishing pigs (85.30 ± 0.97 kg) were randomly assigned to 3 treatments (3 replicates/treatment) with a basal diet (Ctrl), a basal diet supplemented with 10% unfermented DFRB (UFR), and a basal diet supplemented with 10% fermented DFRB (FR) for 30 d. Results revealed that the diet supplemented with FR notably (P < 0.05) improved the average daily gain (ADG), gain to feed ratio (G:F) and the digestibility of crude protein, amino acids and dietary fiber of finishing pigs compared with UFR. Additionally, FR supplementation significantly (P < 0.05) increased total antioxidant capacity, the activities of superoxide dismutase and catalase, and decreased the content of malonaldehyde in serum. Furthermore, FR remarkably (P < 0.05) increased serum levels of IgG, anti-inflammatory cytokines (IL-22 and IL-23) and reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β and INF-γ). The decrease of serum diamine oxidase activity and serum D-lactate content in the FR group (P < 0.05) suggested an improvement in intestinal permeability. Supplementation of FR also elevated the content of acetate and butyrate in feces (P < 0.05). Moreover, FR enhanced gut microbial richness and the abundance of fiber-degrading bacteria such as Clostridium butyricum and Lactobacillus amylovorus. Correlation analyses indicated dietary fiber in FR was associated with improvements in immune status, intestinal permeability and the level of butyrate-producing microbe C. butyricum, which was also verified by the in vitro fermentation analysis. These findings provided an experimental and theoretical basis for the application of fermented DFRB in finishing pigs.

Application of Non-Aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus for the Biological Control of Aflatoxin Contamination in China

Biological control through the application of competitive non-aflatoxigenic Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus) to the soil during peanut growth is a practical method for controlling aflatoxin contamination. However, appropriate materials need to be found to reduce the cost of biocontrol products. In this study, a two-year experiment was conducted under field conditions in China, using a native non-aflatoxigenic strain to explore its effect. After three months of storage under high humidity, aflatoxin levels remained low in peanuts from fields treated with the biocontrol agent. Three types of substrates were tested with the biocontrol agent: rice grains, peanut meal (peanut meal fertilizer) and peanut coating. Compared to untreated fields, these formulations resulted in reductions of 78.23%, 67.54% and 38.48%, respectively. Furthermore, the ratios of non-aflatoxigenic A. flavus recovered in the soils at harvest in the treated fields were between 41.11% and 96.67% higher than that in untreated fields (25.00%), indicating that the rice inoculum was the most effective, followed by the peanut meal fertilizer and peanut coating. In 2019, the mean aflatoxin content of freshly harvested peanuts in untreated fields was 19.35 µg/kg higher than that in the fields treated with 7.5 kg/ha rice inoculum, which was 1.37 µg/kg. Moreover, no aflatoxin was detected in the two other plots treated with 10 and 15 kg/ha rice inoculum. This study showed that the native Chinese non-aflatoxigenic strain of A. flavus (18PAsp-zy1) had the potential to reduce aflatoxin contamination in peanuts. In addition, peanut meal can be used as an alternative substrate to replace traditional grains, reducing the cost of biocontrol products.

Analysis of energy consumption in poultry management for table egg production in Nigeria

Energy audit and mass flow studies of commercial agricultural systems are increasingly becoming of utmost importance, due to high operation costs and dependence on energy. This research was designed to study energy input, output and efficiency for daily table egg production from commercially managed poultry birds. Three commercially operated poultry farms in Ibadan, Nigeria were visited for assessment of management procedures, data collection, equipment observation and personnel interview. The energy required for each management procedure was calculated from standard methods. Each farm housed average of 25,000 actively laying birds and had average daily egg production of 21,250 egg pieces. This amounted to 1169 kg egg and 3000 kg faecal materials production per day from the average energy input of 122,461.12 MJ/day. The highest energy consumption was biological energy which resulted from daily feed consumption of 3000 kg at the rate of 120 g per bird per day. This made up 83.81% of the total energy consumed. These resulted in an energy consumption ratio of 1.05, energy productivity of 0.034 kg/MJ, specific energy of 29.29 MJ/kg and net energy of 6,569.09 MJ/day, respectively. Faecal materials constituted the bulk of the output from the system. Making use of the faecal material in its treated form for the production of feed components would reduce energy costs, increase farmers’ net income and also encourage environmentally efficient processes.

Methodologies for energy evaluation of pig and poultry feeds: A review

The cost of feed represents an important part of the total cost in swine and poultry production (>60%) with energy accounting for at least 70% of feed cost. The energy value of ingredients or compound feeds can be estimated as digestible (DE), metabolisable (ME) and net energy (NE) in pigs and ME and NE in poultry. The current paper reviews the different methods for evaluating DE, ME and NE of feeds for monogastric animals and their difficulties and limits, with a focus on NE. In pigs and poultry, energy digestibility depends on the chemical characteristics of the feed, but also on technology (pelleting, for instance) and animal factors such as their health and body weight. The ME value includes the energy losses in urine that are directly dependent on the proportion of dietary N excreted in urine resulting in the concept of ME adjusted for a zero N balance (MEn) in poultry. For poultry, the concept of true ME (TME, TMEn), which excludes the endogenous fecal and urinary energy losses from the excreta energy, was also developed. The measurement of dietary NE is more complex, and NE values of a given feed depend on the animal and environmental factors and also measurement and calculation methods. The combination of NE values of diets obtained under standardised conditions allows calculating NE prediction equations that are applicable to both ingredients and compound feeds. The abundance of energy concepts, especially for poultry, and the numerous feed and animal factors of variation related to energy digestibility or ME utilisation for NE suggest that attention must be paid to the experimental conditions for evaluating DE, ME or NE content. This also suggests the necessity of standardisations, one of them being, as implemented in pigs, an adjustment of ME values in poultry for an N retention representative of modern production conditions (MEs). In conclusion, this review illustrates that, in addition to numerous technical difficulties for evaluating energy in pigs and poultry, the absolute energy values depend on feed and animal factors, the environment, and the methods and concepts. Finally, as implemented in pigs, the use of NE values should be the objective of a more reliable energy system for poultry feeds.

Relationship between the amino acid release kinetics of feed proteins and nitrogen balance in finishing pigs

In current nutrition requirements of swine, although the protein diets are formulated based on the ileal digestibility of protein and amino acid (AA), there is a difference in nitrogen utilisation among various protein diets, which might be related to the AA release kinetics. To evaluate the relationship between AA release kinetics of feed proteins and nitrogen balance in finishing pigs, pigs were fed diets based on casein (CAS) or corn gluten meal (CGM) at normal or low-protein concentrations, and the AA release patterns were assessed. A 2 × 2 full factorial experimental design was used. 24 pigs (Duroc × Landrace × Yorkshire) with an initial weight of 67.0 ± 1.8 kg were randomly assigned to consume a normal-protein casein-based diet (N.CAS, 10% CP), normal-protein corn gluten meal-based diet (N.CGM, 10% CP), low-protein casein-based diet (L.CAS, 8.5% CP), or low-protein corn gluten meal-based diet (L.CGM, 8.5% CP) for 14 days (n = 6 per group; pigs housed and fed separately). The low-protein diets were associated with a more rapid release of AAs in the early stages of gastric digestion than the normal-protein diets. The N.CAS and L.CAS diets were associated with a peak AA release at approximately 4 h during trypsin digestion, whereas N.CGM and L.CGM were at approximately 16 h. The N.CAS diet was associated with the least dispersed release curves and lowest synchronisation indexes, implying that it was associated with the best AA release synchronism, whereas the L.CGM diet was on the contrary. The nitrogen intake (NI), faecal nitrogen, urine nitrogen (UN), total nitrogen, net protein utilisation and apparent biological value (ABV) of protein of pigs fed the L.CAS or L.CGM diets were lower than those fed the N.CAS or N.CGM diets (P < 0.05). Notably, there was a difference in NI (P < 0.05) and trends with respect to UN and ABV (0.05 < P < 0.1), but no differences in retained nitrogen or apparent nitrogen digestibility between pigs fed the N.CAS or L.CAS diets and those fed the N.CGM or L.CGM diets. Pigs fed the N.CAS or N.CGM diets had higher serum concentrations of UN than pigs fed the L.CAS or L.CGM diets (P < 0.05), but there were no differences in serum total protein, albumin, triglyceride, glucose, alanine transaminase, or aspartate aminotransferase between the groups. In addition, there was an interaction between protein level and protein source on serum globulin (P < 0.05). Therefore, the diet with a better AA release synchronism can improve protein utilisation efficiency in finishing pigs and to reduce environmental pollution.

Variations of Soybean Meal and Corn Mixed Substrates in Physicochemical Characteristics and Microbiota During Two-Stage Solid-State Fermentation

Corn germ meal (CGM) and corn gluten feed (CGF) are the two main corn byproducts (CBs) obtained from corn starch extraction. Due to their high fiber content, low protein content, and severe imbalance of amino acid, CBs are unable to be fully utilized by animals. In this study, the effect of microorganism, proteases, temperature, solid–liquid ratio, and time on nutritional properties of CB mixture feed (CMF) was investigated with the single-factor method and the response surface method to improve the nutritional quality and utilization of CBs. Fermentation with Pichia kudriavzevii, Lactobacillus plantarum, and neutral protease notably improved the nutritional properties of CMF under the fermentation conditions of 37°C, solid–liquid ratio (1.2:1 g/ml), and 72 h. After two-stage solid-stage fermentation, the crude protein (CP) and trichloroacetic acid-soluble protein (TCA-SP) in fermented CMF (FCMF) were increased (p < 0.05) by 14.28% and 25.53%, respectively. The in vitro digestibility of CP and total amino acids of FCMF were significantly improved to 78.53% and 74.94%, respectively. In addition, fermentation degraded fiber and provided more organic acids in the CMF. Multiple physicochemical analyses combined with high-throughput sequencing were performed to reveal the dynamic changes that occur during a two-stage solid-state fermentation process. Generally, Ascomycota became the predominant members of the community of the first-stage of fermentation, and after 36 h of anaerobic fermentation, Paenibacillus spp., Pantoea spp., and Lactobacillales were predominant. All of these processes increased the bacterial abundance and lactic acid content (p < 0.00). Our results suggest that two-stage solid-state fermentation with Pichia kudriavzevii, Lactobacillus plantarum, and protease can efficiently improve protein quality and nutrient utilization of CMF.

Fiber digestibility in growing pigs fed common fiber-rich ingredients: a systematic review

The application of high-fiber ingredients in the swine feed industry has some limitations considering that high amounts of fiber are resistant to endogenous enzymatic degradation in the pig’s gut. However, there is growing interest in fiber fermentation in the intestine of pigs due to their functional properties and potential health benefits. Many strategies have been applied in feed formulations to improve utilization efficiency of fiber-rich ingredients and stimulate their prebiotic effects in pigs. This manuscript reviews chemical compositions, physical properties, and digestibility of fiber-rich diets formulated with fibrous ingredients for growing pigs. Evidences presented in this review indicate there is a great variation in chemical compositions and physical properties of fibrous ingredients, resulting in the discrepancy of energy and fiber digestibility in pig intestine. In practice, fermentation capacity of fiber components in the pig’s intestine can be improved using strategies, such as biological enzymes supplementation and feed processing technologies. Soluble dietary fiber (SDF) and insoluble dietary fiber (IDF), rather than neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF), are recommended in application of pig production to achieve precise feeding. Limitations of current scientific research on determining fiber digestibility and short chain fatty acids (SCFA) production are discussed. Endogenous losses of fiber components from non-dietary materials that result in underestimation of fiber digestibility and SCFA production are discussed in this review. Overall, the purpose of our review is to provide a reference for feeding the pig by choosing the diets formulated with different high-fiber ingredients.

Evaluation on Net Energy of Defatted Rice Bran from Different Origins and Processing Technologies Fed to Growing Pigs

Simple Summary

In recent years, prices of imported staples such as corn and soybean meal have risen dramatically. Defatted rice bran (DFRB), an abundant and underutilized agricultural coproduct of the paddy rice, was a replacement of corn and soybean meal. It is necessary to comprehensively evaluate the nutritional value of DFRB. This study determined and compared the net energy (NE) of DFRB from different sources and different processing technology fed to growing pigs using indirect calorimetry. Results indicated that NE contents of extruded DFRB from different provinces were within the range of values ((8.24 to 10.22 MJ/kg dry matter (DM)). The NE contents of extruded DFRB and pelleted DFRB from the same province were 8.24 vs. 6.56 MJ/kg DM. This study showed that there is a discrepancy of approximately 10.01% in the NE content between the DFRB origins. The data above suggested that NE content of DFRB could be related to DFRB origins and processing technology. More NE contents of different DFRB samples deserve to be explored further. The study supported some theoretical foundation for the application of DFRB in the NE system.

Abstract

The study was conducted to determine and compare the net energy (NE) of defatted rice bran (DFRB) from different sources and different processing technology fed to growing pigs using indirect calorimetry. Thirty-six growing barrows (30.7 ± 3.9 kg) were randomly allotted to 1 of 6 diets with 6 replicate pigs per diet. Diets included a corn-soybean meal basal diet and 5 test diets containing 30% DFRB, respectively. These five samples come from 4 different provinces (i.e., Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, Jilin, and Liaoning province within China) and two of them with the same origin but different processing technologies (i.e., extruded or pelleted). During each period, pigs were kept individually in metabolism crates for 21 days, including 14 days to adapt to the diets. On day 15, pigs were transferred to the open-circuit respiration chambers for adaptation, and the next day were ready to determine daily total heat production (HP) and were fed 1 of the 6 diets at 2.3 MJ metabolizable energy (ME)/kg body weight (BW)^0.6/day. Total feces and urine were collected for the determination of digestible energy (DE) and ME and daily total HP was measured from day 16 to day 20 and fasted on day 21 for the measurement of fasting heat production (FHP). The NE contents of extruded DFRB from different provinces were within the range of values (8.24 to 10.22 MJ/kg DM). There is a discrepancy of approximately 10.01% in the NE content between the DFRB origins. The NE contents of extruded DFRB and pelleted DFRB from the same province were 8.24 vs. 6.56 MJ/kg DM. Retained energy (RE) and FHP of diets containing extruded DFRB and pelleted DFRB were 1105 vs. 892 kJ/kg BW^0.6/day and 746 vs. 726 kJ/kg BW^0.6/day respectively, and those in extruded DFRB from different origins were within the range of values (947 to 1105 kJ/kg BW^0.6/day and 726 to 755 kJ/kg BW^0.6/day, respectively). In conclusion, NE values are affected by origin and processing technology of DFRB.

Net Energy Net Energy Net EnergyNet EnerNet Energy of high-protein sunflower meal fed to growing pigs and effect of dietary phosphorus on measured values of NE

An experiment was carried out to determine energy values of high-protein sunflower meal (HP-SFM) and to compare the energy values of HP-SFM determined using either a phosphorus (P)-deficient basal diet or a P-adequate basal diet. Twenty-four growing barrows were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 dietary treatments with 6 replicates per treatment. Four experimental diets including 2 basal diets containing 2 levels of standardized total tract digestible P (i.e., P-deficient and P-adequate) and the other 2 diets containing 30% HP-SFM with each basal diet (i.e., HP-SFM 1 diet and HP-SFM 2 diet) were formulated to determine the energy values of HP-SFM and to compare energy values of HP-SFM determined by the difference method using 2 basal diets. Pigs were fed diets for 15 d including 10 d for adaptation and 5 d for total collections. Pigs were then moved to indirect calorimetry chambers to determine total heat production (THP) and fasting heat production (FHP). A reduced (P < 0.01) amount of nitrogen was retained in pigs fed the P-deficient basal diet compared with those fed the other diets. The THP of pigs fed the HP-SFM 1 and 2 diets was greater (P < 0.01) than those fed the P-deficient basal diet with the intermediate value for pigs fed the P-adequate basal diet. The retained energy (RE) as protein of pigs fed the P-deficient basal diet was less (P < 0.01) but RE as lipid was greater (P < 0.01) than those fed the P-adequate basal, or HP-SFM 1 and 2 diets. However, there was no difference in FHP of pigs among the dietary treatments. The NE of HP-SFM determined using the P-deficient basal diet was 2,062 kcal/kg, as-fed basis, whereas the value determined using the P-adequate basal diet was 2,151 kcal/kg. Although no differences were observed in energy values, the amount of P in basal diet might affect energy balance by modifying N utilization, thus, a diet containing adequate amount of P is a more suitable basal diet when the difference method is used for calculation of NE in a feed ingredient.

Effects of waste stream combinations from brewing industry on performance of Black Soldier Fly, Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae)

BACKGROUND

In recent years, there has been a rapidly growing demand for readily accessible substrates for mass production of Black Soldier Fly, Hermetia illucens Linnaeus. Beer production results in various by-products that typically end up in uncontrolled dumpsites constituting pollution problems, which merits urgent attention. The present study investigated whether the 12 formulated diets composed of brewers' spent grains (BSGs), brewers' yeast and cane molasses can serve as substrate for H. illucens production.

METHODS

Four different BSGs were selected and formulated into 12 diets, aiming at varying protein and net energy levels. The diets were offered to newly hatched (∼1 h old) H. illucens larvae and the influence on developmental duration, survival, wet weight, pre-oviposition time, fecundity, and longevity were compared.

RESULTS

Developmental duration of the larvae (16-21 days) and pre-pupae (8-11 days) differed significantly across the different diets. The developmental duration of the pupae (8.7-9.1 days) was not affected by diet. The larval (86-99.2%), pre-pupal (71-95%), and pupal (65-91%) survival rates varied significantly between flies reared on the different diets. The pre-oviposition time was similar for flies provided with water (7-11 days) and 10% sugar solution (8-14 days) or across the different diets. The mean fecundity per female ranged from 324-787 eggs and did not differ between females provided with water or sugar solution. However, the number of eggs laid per female varied significantly across the different diets when provided with water. The longevity of starved H. illucens adults was significantly lower (5 days) compared to those provided with water (11-14 days) or sugar solution (14-15 days).

DISCUSSION

The implications of these findings as part of a quality control procedure for commercial production of high-quality H. illucens larvae as an alternative protein ingredient in livestock and aquaculture feed are discussed.

Methodologies on estimating the energy requirements for maintenance and determining the net energy contents of feed ingredients in swine: a review of recent work

In the past two decades, a considerable amount of research has focused on the determination of the digestible (DE) and metabolizable energy (ME) contents of feed ingredients fed to swine. Compared with the DE and ME systems, the net energy (NE) system is assumed to be the most accurate estimate of the energy actually available to the animal. However, published data pertaining to the measured NE content of ingredients fed to growing pigs are limited. Therefore, the Feed Data Group at the Ministry of Agricultural Feed Industry Centre (MAFIC) located at China Agricultural University has evaluated the NE content of many ingredients using indirect calorimetry. The present review summarizes the NE research works conducted at MAFIC and compares these results with those from other research groups on methodological aspect. These research projects mainly focus on estimating the energy requirements for maintenance and its impact on the determination, prediction, and validation of the NE content of several ingredients fed to swine. The estimation of maintenance energy is affected by methodology, growth stage, and previous feeding level. The fasting heat production method and the curvilinear regression method were used in MAFIC to estimate the NE requirement for maintenance. The NE contents of different feedstuffs were determined using indirect calorimetry through standard experimental procedure in MAFIC. Previously generated NE equations can also be used to predict NE in situations where calorimeters are not available. Although popular, the caloric efficiency is not a generally accepted method to validate the energy content of individual feedstuffs. In the future, more accurate and dynamic NE prediction equations aiming at specific ingredients should be established, and more practical validation approaches need to be developed.