Safety and outcome of treatment of metastatic melanoma using 3-bromopyruvate: a concise literature review and case study

The Impact of Glycolysis and Its Inhibitors on the Immune Response to Inflammation and Autoimmunity

Glucose metabolism is a crucial biological pathway maintaining the activation of extra- and intracellular signaling pathways involved in the immune response. Immune cell stimulation via various environmental factors results in their activation and metabolic reprogramming to aerobic glycolysis. Different immune cells exhibit cell-type-specific metabolic patterns when performing their biological functions. Numerous published studies have shed more light on the importance of metabolic reprogramming in the immune system. Moreover, this knowledge is crucial for revealing new ways to target inflammatory pathologic states, such as autoimmunity and hyperinflammation. Here, we discuss the role of glycolysis in immune cell activity in physiological and pathological conditions, and the potential use of inhibitors of glycolysis for disease treatment.

Small molecule inhibitors for cancer metabolism: promising prospects to be explored

BACKGROUND

Abnormal metabolism is the main hallmark of cancer, and cancer metabolism plays an important role in tumorigenesis, metastasis, and drug resistance. Therefore, studying the changes of tumor metabolic pathways is beneficial to find targets for the treatment of cancer diseases. The success of metabolism-targeted chemotherapy suggests that cancer metabolism research will provide potential new targets for the treatment of malignant tumors.

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to systemically review recent research findings on targeted inhibitors of tumor metabolism. In addition, we summarized new insights into tumor metabolic reprogramming and discussed how to guide the exploration of new strategies for cancer-targeted therapy.

CONCLUSION

Cancer cells have shown various altered metabolic pathways, providing sufficient fuel for their survival. The combination of these pathways is considered to be a more useful method for screening multilateral pathways. Better understanding of the clinical research progress of small molecule inhibitors of potential targets of tumor metabolism will help to explore more effective cancer treatment strategies.

Biochemical Origin of the Warburg Effect in Light of 15 Years of Research Experience: A Novel Evidence-Based View (An Expert Opinion Article)

Cancer cells strongly upregulate glucose uptake and glycolysis to produce vital biomolecules for cancer cell survival, proliferation, and metastasis as ATP, lipids, proteins, nucleotides, and lactate. The Warburg effect is tumours' unique glucose oxidation to give lactate (not pyruvate) even in the presence of oxygen. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD/NADH.H) is used in glycolysis via glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH). Both catalyse reversible biochemical reactions to produce 1,3-diphosphoglycerate and lactate, respectively. In this expert opinion and based on published evidence, the author suggests that: "In transformed cells and hyperglycolytic cancer cells, the Warburg effect (permanent conversion of pyruvate to lactate) occurs secondary to a vicious cycle and a closed circuit between GAPDH and LDH (reaction of carcinogenesis) causing increased endogenous oxidative stress and subsequent carcinogenesis. Mitochondrial defects in cancer cells cause hyperglycolysis resulting in NADH.H accumulation (produced during GAPDH step) that obligatorily drives LDH to become an irreversible reaction in the direction of lactate formation (Warburg effect) but not pyruvate formation. Likewise, LDH oxidizes NADH.H producing excessive NAD⁺ that secondarily drives GAPDH reaction to be irreversible to produce NADH.H and so on. Pyruvate is an antioxidant while lactate is pro-oxidant, causing increased endogenous oxidative stress in cancer cells, tumour's hypoxia and obligatory hyperglycolysis with NADH.H overproduction (GAPDH step) to be consumed in the LDH step for lactate production and NAD⁺ generation (utilized by GAPDH) and so on". This confirms Warburg's origin of cancer cells. Best anticancer applications based on this hypothesis are: breaking this closed vicious circle using siRNA to target GAPDH and LDH, avoiding strong oxidants (as many cancer chemotherapeutics), and using strong antioxidants for causing antioxidant-oxidant antagonism or antioxidant-lactate antagonism to inhibit the Warburg effect. Strong natural antioxidants of prophetic medicine (related to Prophet Muhammad peace be upon him) such as Zamzam water, Nigella sativa, costus, Ajwa date fruit, olive oil, Al-hijamah and natural honey are strongly recommended to prevent and antagonize the Warburg effect.

Glutathione-Mediated Conjugation of Anticancer Drugs: An Overview of Reaction Mechanisms and Biological Significance for Drug Detoxification and Bioactivation

The effectiveness of many anticancer drugs depends on the creation of specific metabolites that may alter their therapeutic or toxic properties. One significant route of biotransformation is a conjugation of electrophilic compounds with reduced glutathione, which can be non-enzymatic and/or catalyzed by glutathione-dependent enzymes. Glutathione usually combines with anticancer drugs and/or their metabolites to form more polar and water-soluble glutathione S-conjugates, readily excreted outside the body. In this regard, glutathione plays a role in detoxification, decreasing the likelihood that a xenobiotic will react with cellular targets. However, some drugs once transformed into thioethers are more active or toxic than the parent compound. Thus, glutathione conjugation may also lead to pharmacological or toxicological effects through bioactivation reactions. My purpose here is to provide a broad overview of the mechanisms of glutathione-mediated conjugation of anticancer drugs. Additionally, I discuss the biological importance of glutathione conjugation to anticancer drug detoxification and bioactivation pathways. I also consider the potential role of glutathione in the metabolism of unsymmetrical bisacridines, a novel prosperous class of anticancer compounds developed in our laboratory. The knowledge on glutathione-mediated conjugation of anticancer drugs presented in this review may be noteworthy for improving cancer therapy and preventing drug resistance in cancers.

Targeting Energy Metabolism in Cancer Treatment

Cancer is the second most common cause of death worldwide after cardiovascular diseases. The development of molecular and biochemical techniques has expanded the knowledge of changes occurring in specific metabolic pathways of cancer cells. Increased aerobic glycolysis, the promotion of anaplerotic responses, and especially the dependence of cells on glutamine and fatty acid metabolism have become subjects of study. Despite many cancer treatment strategies, many patients with neoplastic diseases cannot be completely cured due to the development of resistance in cancer cells to currently used therapeutic approaches. It is now becoming a priority to develop new treatment strategies that are highly effective and have few side effects. In this review, we present the current knowledge of the enzymes involved in the different steps of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the pentose phosphate pathway, and possible targeted therapies. The review also focuses on presenting the differences between cancer cells and normal cells in terms of metabolic phenotype. Knowledge of cancer cell metabolism is constantly evolving, and further research is needed to develop new strategies for anti-cancer therapies.

Natural products targeting cancer cell dependency

Precision cancer medicine is a tailored treatment approach for individual cancer patients with different genomic characteristics. Mutated or hyperactive oncogenes have served as main drug targets in current precision cancer medicine, while defective or inactivated tumor suppressors in general have not been considered as druggable targets. Synthetic lethality is one of very few approaches that enable to target defective tumor suppressors with pharmacological agents. Synthetic lethality exploits cancer cell dependency on a protein or pathway, which arises when the function of a tumor suppressor is defective. This approach has been proven to be effective in clinical settings since the successful clinical introduction of BRCA-PARP synthetic lethality for the treatment of breast and ovarian cancer with defective BRCA. Subsequently, large-scale screenings with RNAi, CRISPR/Cas9-sgRNAs, and chemical libraries have been applied to identify synthetic lethal partners of tumor suppressors. Natural products are an important source for the discovery of pharmacologically active small molecules. However, little effort has been made in the discovery of synthetic lethal small molecules from natural products. This review introduces recent advances in the discovery of natural products targeting cancer cell dependency and discusses potentials of natural products in the precision cancer medicine.

Contemporary Perspectives on the Warburg Effect Inhibition in Cancer Therapy

In the 1920s, Otto Warburg observed the phenomenon of altered glucose metabolism in cancer cells. Although the initial hypothesis suggested that the alteration resulted from mitochondrial damage, multiple studies of the subject revealed a precise, multistage process rather than a random pattern. The phenomenon of aerobic glycolysis emerges not only from mitochondrial abnormalities common in cancer cells, but also results from metabolic reprogramming beneficial for their sustenance. The Warburg effect enables metabolic adaptation of cancer cells to grow and proliferate, simultaneously enabling their survival in hypoxic conditions. Altered glucose metabolism of cancer cells includes, inter alia, qualitative and quantitative changes within glucose transporters, enzymes of the glycolytic pathway, such as hexokinases and pyruvate kinase, hypoxia-inducible factor, monocarboxylate transporters, and lactate dehydrogenase. This review summarizes the current state of knowledge regarding inhibitors of cancer glucose metabolism with a focus on their clinical potential. The altered metabolic phenotype of cancer cells allows for targeting of specific mechanisms, which might improve conventional methods in anti-cancer therapy. However, several problems such as drug bioavailability, specificity, toxicity, the plasticity of cancer cells, and heterogeneity of cells in tumors have to be overcome when designing therapies based on compounds targeted in cancer cell energy metabolism.

Novel Strategies for Disrupting Cancer-Cell Functions with Mitochondria-Targeted Antitumor Drug-Loaded Nanoformulations

Any variation in normal cellular function results in mitochondrial dysregulation that occurs in several diseases, including cancer. Such processes as oxidative stress, metabolism, signaling, and biogenesis play significant roles in cancer initiation and progression. Due to their central role in cellular metabolism, mitochondria are favorable therapeutic targets for the prevention and treatment of conditions like neurodegenerative diseases, diabetes, and cancer. Subcellular mitochondria-specific theranostic nanoformulations for simultaneous targeting, drug delivery, and imaging of these organelles are of immense interest in cancer therapy. It is a challenging task to cross multiple barriers to target mitochondria in diseased cells. To overcome these multiple barriers, several mitochondriotropic nanoformulations have been engineered for the transportation of mitochondria-specific drugs. These nanoformulations include liposomes, dendrimers, carbon nanotubes, polymeric nanoparticles (NPs), and inorganic NPs. These nanoformulations are made mitochondriotropic by conjugating them with moieties like dequalinium, Mito-Porter, triphenylphosphonium, and Mitochondria-penetrating peptides. Most of these nanoformulations are meticulously tailored to control their size, charge, shape, mitochondriotropic drug loading, and specific cell-membrane interactions. Recently, some novel mitochondria-selective antitumor compounds known as mitocans have shown high toxicity against cancer cells. These selective compounds form vicious oxidative stress and reactive oxygen species cycles within cancer cells and ultimately push them to cell death. Nanoformulations approved by the FDA and EMA for clinical applications in cancer patients include Doxil, NK105, and Abraxane. The novel use of these NPs still faces tremendous challenges and an immense amount of research is needed to understand the proper mechanisms of cancer progression and control by these NPs. Here in this review, we summarize current advancements and novel strategies of delivering different anticancer therapeutic agents to mitochondria with the help of various nanoformulations.

Hexokinase 2 in Cancer: A Prima Donna Playing Multiple Characters

Hexokinases are a family of ubiquitous exose-phosphorylating enzymes that prime glucose for intracellular utilization. Hexokinase 2 (HK2) is the most active isozyme of the family, mainly expressed in insulin-sensitive tissues. HK2 induction in most neoplastic cells contributes to their metabolic rewiring towards aerobic glycolysis, and its genetic ablation inhibits malignant growth in mouse models. HK2 can dock to mitochondria, where it performs additional functions in autophagy regulation and cell death inhibition that are independent of its enzymatic activity. The recent definition of HK2 localization to contact points between mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum called Mitochondria Associated Membranes (MAMs) has unveiled a novel HK2 role in regulating intracellular Ca²⁺ fluxes. Here, we propose that HK2 localization in MAMs of tumor cells is key in sustaining neoplastic progression, as it acts as an intersection node between metabolic and survival pathways. Disrupting these functions by targeting HK2 subcellular localization can constitute a promising anti-tumor strategy.

Mechanisms of Metabolic Reprogramming in Cancer Cells Supporting Enhanced Growth and Proliferation

Cancer cells alter metabolic processes to sustain their characteristic uncontrolled growth and proliferation. These metabolic alterations include (1) a shift from oxidative phosphorylation to aerobic glycolysis to support the increased need for ATP, (2) increased glutaminolysis for NADPH regeneration, (3) altered flux through the pentose phosphate pathway and the tricarboxylic acid cycle for macromolecule generation, (4) increased lipid uptake, lipogenesis, and cholesterol synthesis, (5) upregulation of one-carbon metabolism for the production of ATP, NADH/NADPH, nucleotides, and glutathione, (6) altered amino acid metabolism, (7) metabolism-based regulation of apoptosis, and (8) the utilization of alternative substrates, such as lactate and acetate. Altered metabolic flux in cancer is controlled by tumor-host cell interactions, key oncogenes, tumor suppressors, and other regulatory molecules, including non-coding RNAs. Changes to metabolic pathways in cancer are dynamic, exhibit plasticity, and are often dependent on the type of tumor and the tumor microenvironment, leading in a shift of thought from the Warburg Effect and the “reverse Warburg Effect” to metabolic plasticity. Understanding the complex nature of altered flux through these multiple pathways in cancer cells can support the development of new therapies.

Toxicity of the acetyl-para-aminophenol group of medicines to intact intervertebral disc tissue cells

The present study aimed to investigate the effects of paracetamol, an analgesic and antipyretic that is used in emergency departments and neurosurgery departments for postoperative pain management on intervertebral disc tissue. Paracetamol-treated human primary cell cultures and untreated cell cultures were compared using molecular analyses. Cell proliferation and gene expression were statistically analyzed. Cell proliferation was suppressed on days 10 (P=0.05) and 20 (P<0.05) in the paracetamol-treated groups. Gene expression of chondroadherin, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-7, MMP-13 and MMP-19 was higher in the paracetamol-treated samples while gene expression of Cartilage Oligomeric Matrix Protein and interleukin-1β was lower (P<0.05). Paracetamol, which appears innocuous compared with many analgesics, may increase the expression of MMPs, which serve a significant role in catabolic reactions and suppress the proliferation of intact intervertebral disc tissue cells.

Construction and Evaluation of Folic Acid-Modified 3-Bromopyruvate Cubosomes

Background

Direct 3-bromopyruvate chemotherapy often causes side effects. We thus aimed to construct and evaluate folic acid-modified 3-bromopyruvate liquid crystalline nanoparticles (3BP-LCNP-FA) and assess their targeted antitumor effects in tumor-bearing nude mice.

Material/Methods

A liquid crystalline nanoparticle formulation was screened, and the structure was characterized using polarizing light- and transmission electron microscopy. The folate target was then synthesized and characterized using differential scanning calorimetry and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In vitro, human CNE-2Z and MDA-MB-231 tumor cells were used to evaluate 3BP-LCNP-FA effects on tumor cell morphology and proliferation. Different drug formulations were administered to tumor-bearing nude mice to observe the treatment effects. Hepatic and renal toxicities were assessed using hematoxylin and eosin-stained liver, kidney, and lung sections along with serological analysis of liver and kidney injury markers (e.g., aspartate aminotransferase, alanine transaminase, blood urea nitrogen, and creatinine). Tumor tissue was observed for changes using proliferating cell nuclear antigen immunohistochemistry and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling assay.

Results

We successfully prepared 3BP-LCNP-FA of spherical shape with uniform size using the aforementioned techniques; drug loading did not alter crystal morphology. These cubosomes exhibited more potent antitumor activity than 3-bromopyruvate alone or non-folic acid-conjugated 3-bromopyruvate liquid crystalline nanoparticles in vitro and in vivo without obvious toxic side effects.

Conclusions

It is possible to successfully construct 3BP-LCNP-FA as a drug delivery vehicle that is more efficacious than 3-bromopyruvate and has no obvious toxic effects. Thus, folic acid-modified cubosomes can be used as effective carriers for targeted drug administration.

Mitochondria in cancer

The rediscovery and reinterpretation of the Warburg effect in the year 2000 occulted for almost a decade the key functions exerted by mitochondria in cancer cells. Until recent times, the scientific community indeed focused on constitutive glycolysis as a hallmark of cancer cells, which it is not, largely ignoring the contribution of mitochondria to the malignancy of oxidative and glycolytic cancer cells, being Warburgian or merely adapted to hypoxia. In this review, we highlight that mitochondria are not only powerhouses in some cancer cells, but also dynamic regulators of life, death, proliferation, motion and stemness in other types of cancer cells. Similar to the cells that host them, mitochondria are capable to adapt to tumoral conditions, and probably to evolve to ‘oncogenic mitochondria' capable of transferring malignant capacities to recipient cells. In the wider quest of metabolic modulators of cancer, treatments have already been identified targeting mitochondria in cancer cells, but the field is still in infancy.

Competitive glucose metabolism as a target to boost bladder cancer immunotherapy

Bladder cancer - the tenth most frequent cancer worldwide - has a heterogeneous natural history and clinical behaviour. The predominant histological subtype, urothelial bladder carcinoma, is characterized by high recurrence rates, progression and both primary and acquired resistance to platinum-based therapy, which impose a considerable economic burden on health-care systems and have substantial effects on the quality of life and the overall outcomes of patients with bladder cancer. The incidence of urothelial tumours is increasing owing to population growth and ageing, so novel therapeutic options are vital. Based on work by The Cancer Genome Atlas project, which has identified targetable vulnerabilities in bladder cancer, immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) have arisen as an effective alternative for managing advanced disease. However, although ICIs have shown durable responses in a subset of patients with bladder cancer, the overall response rate is only ~15-25%, which increases the demand for biomarkers of response and therapeutic strategies that can overcome resistance to ICIs. In ICI non-responders, cancer cells use effective mechanisms to evade immune cell antitumour activity; the overlapping Warburg effect machinery of cancer and immune cells is a putative determinant of the immunosuppressive phenotype in bladder cancer. This energetic interplay between tumour and immune cells leads to metabolic competition in the tumour ecosystem, limiting nutrient availability and leading to microenvironmental acidosis, which hinders immune cell function. Thus, molecular hallmarks of cancer cell metabolism are potential therapeutic targets, not only to eliminate malignant cells but also to boost the efficacy of immunotherapy. In this sense, integrating the targeting of tumour metabolism into immunotherapy design seems a rational approach to improve the therapeutic efficacy of ICIs.

Diverse Stakeholders of Tumor Metabolism: An Appraisal of the Emerging Approach of Multifaceted Metabolic Targeting by 3-Bromopyruvate

Malignant cells possess a unique metabolic machinery to endure unobstructed cell survival. It comprises several levels of metabolic networking consisting of 1) upregulated expression of membrane-associated transporter proteins, facilitating unhindered uptake of substrates; 2) upregulated metabolic pathways for efficient substrate utilization; 3) pH and redox homeostasis, conducive for driving metabolism; 4) tumor metabolism-dependent reconstitution of tumor growth promoting the external environment; 5) upregulated expression of receptors and signaling mediators; and 6) distinctive genetic and regulatory makeup to generate and sustain rearranged metabolism. This feat is achieved by a "battery of molecular patrons," which acts in a highly cohesive and mutually coordinated manner to bestow immortality to neoplastic cells. Consequently, it is necessary to develop a multitargeted therapeutic approach to achieve a formidable inhibition of the diverse arrays of tumor metabolism. Among the emerging agents capable of such multifaceted targeting of tumor metabolism, an alkylating agent designated as 3-bromopyruvate (3-BP) has gained immense research focus because of its broad spectrum and specific antineoplastic action. Inhibitory effects of 3-BP are imparted on a variety of metabolic target molecules, including transporters, metabolic enzymes, and several other crucial stakeholders of tumor metabolism. Moreover, 3-BP ushers a reconstitution of the tumor microenvironment, a reversal of tumor acidosis, and recuperative action on vital organs and systems of the tumor-bearing host. Studies have been conducted to identify targets of 3-BP and its derivatives and characterization of target binding for further optimization. This review presents a brief and comprehensive discussion about the current state of knowledge concerning various aspects of tumor metabolism and explores the prospects of 3-BP as a safe and effective antineoplastic agent.

Targeting the unfolded protein response in head and neck and oral cavity cancers

Many FDA-approved anti-cancer therapies, targeted toward a wide array of molecular targets and signaling networks, have been demonstrated to activate the unfolded protein response (UPR). Despite a critical role for UPR signaling in the apoptotic execution of cancer cells by many of these compounds, the authors are currently unaware of any instance whereby a cancer drug was developed with the UPR as the intended target. With the essential role of the UPR as a driving force in the genesis and maintenance of the malignant phenotype, a great number of pre-clinical studies have surged into the medical literature describing the ability of dozens of compounds to induce UPR signaling in a myriad of cancer models. The focus of the current work is to review the literature and explore the role of the UPR as a mediator of chemotherapy-induced cell death in squamous cell carcinomas of the head and neck (HNSCC) and oral cavity (OCSCC), with an emphasis on preclinical studies.

Differential proteomic comparison of breast cancer secretome using a quantitative paired analysis workflow

Background

Worldwide, breast cancer is the main cause of cancer mortality in women. Most cases originate in mammary ductal cells that produce the nipple aspirate fluid (NAF). In cancer patients, this secretome contains proteins associated with the tumor microenvironment. NAF studies are challenging because of inter-individual variability. We introduced a paired-proteomic shotgun strategy that relies on NAF analysis from both breasts of patients with unilateral breast cancer and extended PatternLab for Proteomics software to take advantage of this setup.

Methods

The software is based on a peptide-centric approach and uses the binomial distribution to attribute a probability for each peptide as being linked to the disease; these probabilities are propagated to a final protein p-value according to the Stouffer’s Z-score method.

Results

A total of 1227 proteins were identified and quantified, of which 87 were differentially abundant, being mainly involved in glycolysis (Warburg effect) and immune system activation (activated stroma). Additionally, in the estrogen receptor-positive subgroup, proteins related to the regulation of insulin-like growth factor transport and platelet degranulation displayed higher abundance, confirming the presence of a proliferative microenvironment.

Conclusions

We debuted a differential bioinformatics workflow for the proteomic analysis of NAF, validating this secretome as a treasure-trove for studying a paired-organ cancer type.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12885-019-5547-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Tumor Energy Metabolism and Potential of 3-Bromopyruvate as an Inhibitor of Aerobic Glycolysis: Implications in Tumor Treatment

Tumor formation and growth depend on various biological metabolism processes that are distinctly different with normal tissues. Abnormal energy metabolism is one of the typical characteristics of tumors. It has been proven that most tumor cells highly rely on aerobic glycolysis to obtain energy rather than mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) even in the presence of oxygen, a phenomenon called “Warburg effect”. Thus, inhibition of aerobic glycolysis becomes an attractive strategy to specifically kill tumor cells, while normal cells remain unaffected. In recent years, a small molecule alkylating agent, 3-bromopyruvate (3-BrPA), being an effective glycolytic inhibitor, has shown great potential as a promising antitumor drug. Not only it targets glycolysis process, but also inhibits mitochondrial OXPHOS in tumor cells. Excellent antitumor effects of 3-BrPA were observed in cultured cells and tumor-bearing animal models. In this review, we described the energy metabolic pathways of tumor cells, mechanism of action and cellular targets of 3-BrPA, antitumor effects, and the underlying mechanism of 3-BrPA alone or in combination with other antitumor drugs (e.g., cisplatin, doxorubicin, daunorubicin, 5-fluorouracil, etc.) in vitro and in vivo. In addition, few human case studies of 3-BrPA were also involved. Finally, the novel chemotherapeutic strategies of 3-BrPA, including wafer, liposomal nanoparticle, aerosol, and conjugate formulations, were also discussed for future clinical application.

The Sweet Surrender: How Myeloid Cell Metabolic Plasticity Shapes the Tumor Microenvironment

Immune cells are one of the most versatile cell types, as they can tailor their metabolic activity according to their required function. In response to diverse environmental cues, immune cells undergo metabolic reprogramming to support their differentiation, proliferation and pro-inflammatory effector functions. To meet a dramatic surge in energetic demand, immune cells rewire their metabolism to utilize aerobic glycolysis. This preferential use of glycolysis even under aerobic conditions is well established in tumor cells, and is known as the "Warburg effect." Tumor cells avidly use glucose for aerobic glycolysis, thereby creating a nutrient-starved microenvironment, outcompeting T cells for glucose, and directly inhibiting T-cell anti-tumoral effector function. Given that both immune and tumor cells use similar modes of metabolism in the tumor stroma, it is imperative to identify a therapeutic window in which immune-cell and tumor-cell glycolysis can be specifically targeted. In this review, we focus on the Warburg metabolism as well as other metabolic pathways of myeloid cells, which comprise a notable niche in the tumor environment and promote the growth and metastasis of malignant tumors. We examine how differential immune-cell activation triggers metabolic fate, and detail how this forbidding microenvironment succeeds in shutting down the vigorous anti-tumoral response. Finally, we highlight emerging therapeutic concepts that aim to target immune-cell metabolism. Improving our understanding of immunometabolism and immune-cell commitment to specific metabolic fates will help identify alternative therapeutic approaches to battle this intractable disease.

Bioorthogonal Profiling of a Cancer Cell Proteome Identifies a Large Set of 3-Bromopyruvate Targets beyond Glycolysis

3-Bromopyruvate (3BP) is a potential anticancer agent viewed as a glycolytic inhibitor that preferentially kills cancer cells through inhibition of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), resulting in severe energy depletion. We previously identified four cysteine residues in GAPDH that are alkylated by 3BP, resulting in its inactivation. However, we also showed that addition of excess pyruvate, the final product of glycolysis, was unable to rescue cells from 3BP treatment. This result indicates that GAPDH may not be the only relevant target and is consistent with the chemical reactivity of 3BP that should result in the modification of cysteine residues in many different proteins. To directly test this hypothesis, we first synthesized a probe of 3BP activity bearing an alkyne functionality, termed AO3BP, and then demonstrated that this probe could modify a variety of proteins in living cells. Subsequent competition of AO3BP labeling with pretreatment by 3BP identified 62 statistically significant proteins of various functions as targets of 3BP, confirming that 3BP labeling is indeed widespread. We conclude that 3BP's cytotoxic impact on cancer cells does not only result from selective inhibition of glycolysis but rather from a more widespread effect on cellular proteins that could be driven by the pharmacokinetics of the 3BP. These pleiotropic consequences should be considered when thinking about the potential toxicity of this highly reactive compound.

Enhancing anticancer effects, decreasing risks and solving practical problems facing 3-bromopyruvate in clinical oncology: 10 years of research experience

3-Bromopyruvate (3BP) is a promising powerful general anticancer agent. Unfortunately, 3BP release faces many practical and biochemical problems in clinical human oncology, for example, 3BP induces burning venous sensation (during intravenous infusion) and rapid inactivation by thiol groups of glutathione and proteins. 3BP exhibits resistance in glutathione-rich tumors without being able to exert selective targeting. 3BP does not cross the blood–brain barrier and cannot treat nervous system tumors. Importantly, 3BP cannot persist in tumor tissues due to the phenomenon of enhanced permeability and retention effect. Here, the author presents the practical solutions for clinical problems facing 3BP use in clinical oncology, based on over 10 years of experience in 3BP research. Crude (unformulated 3BP that is purchased from chemical companies without being formulated in liposomes or other nanocarriers) should not be administered in clinical oncology. Instead, 3BP is better formulated with liposomes, polyethylene glycol (PEG), PEGylated liposomes (stealth liposomes) or perillyl alcohol that are used currently with many chemotherapeutics for treating clinical tumors in cancer patients. Formulating 3BP with targeted liposomes, for example, with folate, transferrin or other ligands, improves tumor targeting. Formulating 3BP with liposomes, PEG, stealth liposomes or perillyl alcohol may improve its pharmacokinetics, hide it from thiols in the circulation, protect it from serum proteins and enzymes, prevent burning sensation, prolong 3BP’s longevity and facilitate crossing the BBB. Formulating 3BP with stealth liposomes protects 3BP from the reticuloendothelial cells. Liposomal 3BP formulations may retain 3BP better inside the relatively large tumor capillary pores (abolish enhanced permeability and retention effect) sparing normal tissues, facilitate new delivery routes for 3BP (eg, topical and intranasal 3BP administration using perillyl alcohol) and improve cancer cytotoxicity. Formulating 3BP may be promising in overcoming many obstacles in clinical oncology.

3-Bromopyruvate as an Alternative Option for the Treatment of Protothecosis

Protothecosis is an unusual infection of both humans and animals caused by opportunistically pathogenic microalgae of the genus Prototheca. Until now, no standardized treatment protocols exist for the protothecal disease, boosted by a remarkable resistance of Prototheca spp. to a wide array of antimicrobial agents currently available in clinical use. Consequently, there is an urgent need for new effective drugs against Prototheca algae. In this study, the anti-Prototheca activity of 3-bromopyruvate (3BP), either alone or in combination with amphotericin B (AMB) was assessed in vitro, as well as the cytotoxicity of 3BP toward the bovine mammary epithelial cells and murine skin fibroblasts. The mean minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimum algaecidal concentrations (MAC) were 0.85 ± 0.21 and 2.25 ± 0.54 mM for Prototheca wickerhamii, 1.25 ± 0.47 and 4.8 ± 1.03 mM for Prototheca blaschkeae, and 1.55 ± 0.69 and 5.6 ± 1.3 mM for Prototheca zopfii gen. 2, respectively. For all Prototheca strains tested, a synergistic interaction between 3BP and AMB was observed, resulting in about 4-fold reduction of their individual MICs, when used together. The elevated content of intracellular glutathione (GSH) was associated with a decreased susceptibility to 3BP. Both epithelial and fibroblast cells retained high viability upon treatment with 3BP at concentrations equivalent to the highest MIC recorded (3 mM) and 10-fold higher (30 mM), with the mean cell viability exceeding 80%, essentially the same as for the untreated cells. The results from these in vitro studies emphasize the high activity of 3BP against the Prototheca algae, its synergistic effect when used in combination with AMB, and the safety of the drug toward the tested mammalian cells. Along with the advantageous physico-chemical and pharmacokinetic properties, 3BP may be considered an effective and safe novel agent against the protothecal disease.

VDAC1 as Pharmacological Target in Cancer and Neurodegeneration: Focus on Its Role in Apoptosis

Cancer and neurodegeneration are different classes of diseases that share the involvement of mitochondria in their pathogenesis. Whereas the high glycolytic rate (the so-called Warburg metabolism) and the suppression of apoptosis are key elements for the establishment and maintenance of cancer cells, mitochondrial dysfunction and increased cell death mark neurodegeneration. As a main actor in the regulation of cell metabolism and apoptosis, VDAC may represent the common point between these two broad families of pathologies. Located in the outer mitochondrial membrane, VDAC forms channels that control the flux of ions and metabolites across the mitochondrion thus mediating the organelle's cross-talk with the rest of the cell. Furthermore, the interaction with both pro-apoptotic and anti-apoptotic factors makes VDAC a gatekeeper for mitochondria-mediated cell death and survival signaling pathways. Unfortunately, the lack of an evident druggability of this protein, since it has no defined binding or active sites, makes the quest for VDAC interacting molecules a difficult tale. Pharmacologically active molecules of different classes have been proposed to hit cancer and neurodegeneration. In this work, we provide an exhaustive and detailed survey of all the molecules, peptides, and microRNAs that exploit VDAC in the treatment of the two examined classes of pathologies. The mechanism of action and the potential or effectiveness of each compound are discussed.

Monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT1), a tool to stratify acute myeloid leukemia (AML) patients and a vehicle to kill cancer cells

Dysregulation of glucose/lactate dynamics plays a role in cancer progression, and MCTs are key elements in metabolic remodeling. VEGF is a relevant growth factor in the maintenance of bone marrow microenvironment and it is also important in hematological diseases.

Our aim was to investigate the role of VEGF in the metabolic adaptation of Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) cells by evaluating the metabolic profiles and cell features according to the AML lineage and testing lactate as a metabolic coin.

Our in vitro results showed that AML promyelocytic (HL60) and monocytic (THP1) (but not erythroid- HEL) lineages are well adapted to VEGF and lactate rich environment. Their metabolic adaptation relies on high rates of glycolysis to generate intermediates for PPP to support cell proliferation, and on the consumption of glycolysis-generated lactate to supply biomass and energy production. VEGF orchestrates this metabolic network by regulating MCT1 expression. Bromopyruvic acid (BPA) was proven to be an effective cytotoxic in AML, possibly transported by MCT1.

Our study reinforces that targeting metabolism can be a good strategy to fight cancer. MCT1 expression at the time of diagnosis can assist on the identification of AML patients that will benefit from BPA therapy. Additionally, MCT1 can be used in targeted delivery of conventional cytotoxic drugs.

ITD mutation in FLT3 tyrosine kinase promotes Warburg effect and renders therapeutic sensitivity to glycolytic inhibition

Internal tandem duplication (ITD) mutation in Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 gene (FLT3/ITD) represents an unfavorable genetic change in acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and is associated with poor prognosis. Metabolic alterations have been involved in tumor progression and attracted interest as a target for therapeutic intervention. However, few studies analyzed the adaptations of cellular metabolism in the context of FLT3/ITD mutation. Here, we report that FLT3/ITD causes a significant increase in aerobic glycolysis through AKT-mediated upregulation of mitochondrial hexokinase (HK2), and renders the leukemia cells highly dependent on glycolysis and sensitive to pharmacological inhibition of glycolytic activity. Inhibition of glycolysis preferentially causes severe ATP depletion and massive cell death in FLT3/ITD leukemia cells. Glycolytic inhibitors significantly enhances the cytotoxicity induced by FLT3 tyrosine kinase inhibitor sorafenib. Importantly, such combination provides substantial therapeutic benefit in a murine model bearing FLT3/ITD leukemia. Our study suggests that FLT3/ITD mutation promotes Warburg effect, and such metabolic alteration can be exploited to develop effective therapeutic strategy for treatment of AML with FLT3/ITD mutation via metabolic intervention.

Targeting Cancer Cells using 3-bromopyruvate for Selective Cancer Treatment

Cancer treatment deserves more research efforts despite intensive conventional treatment modalities for many types of malignancies. Metastasis and resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy receive a lot of global research efforts. The current advances in cancer biology may improve targeting the critical metabolic differences that distinguish cancer cells from normal cells. Cancer cells are highly glycolytic for energy production, exhibit the Warburg effect, establish aggressive acidic microenvironment, maintain cancer stem cells, exhibit resistance to chemotherapy, have low antioxidant systems but different ΔΨm (delta psi, mitochondrial transmembrane potential), express P-glycoprotein for multidrug resistance, upregulate glucose transporters and monocarboxylate transporters and are under high steady-state reactive oxygen species conditions. Normal cells differ in all these aspects. Lactate produced through the Warburg effect helps cancer metastasis. Targeting glycolysis reactions for energy production in cancer cells seems promising in decreasing the proliferation and metastasis of cancer cells. 3-bromopyruvate makes use of cancer biology in treating cancer cells, cancer stem cells and preventing metastasis in human cancer as discussed in this review. Updated advances are analyzed here, which include research analysis of background, experience, readings in the field of cancer biology, oncology and biochemistry.

Lactate/pyruvate transporter MCT-1 is a direct Wnt target that confers sensitivity to 3-bromopyruvate in colon cancer

Background

There is increasing evidence that oncogenic Wnt signaling directs metabolic reprogramming of cancer cells to favor aerobic glycolysis or Warburg metabolism. In colon cancer, this reprogramming is due to direct regulation of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1 (PDK1) gene transcription. Additional metabolism genes are sensitive to Wnt signaling and exhibit correlative expression with PDK1. Whether these genes are also regulated at the transcriptional level, and therefore a part of a core metabolic gene program targeted by oncogenic WNT signaling, is not known.

Results

Here, we identify monocarboxylate transporter 1 (MCT-1; encoded by SLC16A1) as a direct target gene supporting Wnt-driven Warburg metabolism. We identify and validate Wnt response elements (WREs) in the proximal SLC16A1 promoter and show that they mediate sensitivity to Wnt inhibition via dominant-negative LEF-1 (dnLEF-1) expression and the small molecule Wnt inhibitor XAV939. We also show that WREs function in an independent and additive manner with c-Myc, the only other known oncogenic regulator of SLC16A1 transcription. MCT-1 can export lactate, the byproduct of Warburg metabolism, and it is the essential transporter of pyruvate as well as a glycolysis-targeting cancer drug, 3-bromopyruvate (3-BP). Using sulforhodamine B (SRB) assays to follow cell proliferation, we tested a panel of colon cancer cell lines for sensitivity to 3-BP. We observe that all cell lines are highly sensitive and that reduction of Wnt signaling by XAV939 treatment does not synergize with 3-BP, but instead is protective and promotes rapid recovery.

Conclusions

We conclude that MCT-1 is part of a core Wnt signaling gene program for glycolysis in colon cancer and that modulation of this program could play an important role in shaping sensitivity to drugs that target cancer metabolism.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s40170-016-0159-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The anticancer agent 3-bromopyruvate: a simple but powerful molecule taken from the lab to the bedside

At the beginning of the twenty-first century, 3-bromopyruvate (3BP), a simple alkylating chemical compound was presented to the scientific community as a potent anticancer agent, able to cause rapid toxicity to cancer cells without bystander effects on normal tissues. The altered metabolism of cancers, an essential hallmark for their progression, also became their Achilles heel by facilitating 3BP's selective entry and specific targeting. Treatment with 3BP has been administered in several cancer type models both in vitro and in vivo, either alone or in combination with other anticancer therapeutic approaches. These studies clearly demonstrate 3BP's broad action against multiple cancer types. Clinical trials using 3BP are needed to further support its anticancer efficacy against multiple cancer types thus making it available to more than 30 million patients living with cancer worldwide. This review discusses current knowledge about 3BP related to cancer and discusses also the possibility of its use in future clinical applications as it relates to safety and treatment issues.

Effect of 3-bromopyruvate acid on the redox equilibrium in non-invasive MCF-7 and invasive MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells

Novel approaches to cancer chemotherapy employ metabolic differences between normal and tumor cells, including the high dependence of cancer cells on glycolysis ("Warburg effect"). 3-Bromopyruvate (3-BP), inhibitor of glycolysis, belongs to anticancer drugs basing on this principle. 3-BP was tested for its capacity to kill human non-invasive MCF-7 and invasive MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells. We found that 3-BP was more toxic for MDA-MB-231 cells than for MCF-7 cells. In both cell lines, a statistically significant decrease of ATP and glutathione was observed in a time- and 3-BP concentration-dependent manner. Transient increases in the level of reactive oxygen species and reactive oxygen species was observed, more pronounced in MCF-7 cells, followed by a decreasing tendency. Activities of glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase (GR) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) decreased in 3-BP treated MDA-MB-231 cells. For MCF-7 cells decreases of GR and GST activities were noted only at the highest concentration of 3-BP.These results point to induction of oxidative stress by 3-BP via depletion of antioxidants and inactivation of antioxidant enzymes, more pronounced in MDA-MB-231 cells, more sensitive to 3-BP.

Metabolic interplay between glycolysis and mitochondrial oxidation: The reverse Warburg effect and its therapeutic implication

Aerobic glycolysis, i.e., the Warburg effect, may contribute to the aggressive phenotype of hepatocellular carcinoma. However, increasing evidence highlights the limitations of the Warburg effect, such as high mitochondrial respiration and low glycolysis rates in cancer cells. To explain such contradictory phenomena with regard to the Warburg effect, a metabolic interplay between glycolytic and oxidative cells was proposed, i.e., the "reverse Warburg effect". Aerobic glycolysis may also occur in the stromal compartment that surrounds the tumor; thus, the stromal cells feed the cancer cells with lactate and this interaction prevents the creation of an acidic condition in the tumor microenvironment. This concept provides great heterogeneity in tumors, which makes the disease difficult to cure using a single agent. Understanding metabolic flexibility by lactate shuttles offers new perspectives to develop treatments that target the hypoxic tumor microenvironment and overcome the limitations of glycolytic inhibitors.

Effect of 3-bromopyruvate and atovaquone on infection during in vitro interaction of Toxoplasma gondii and LLC-MK2 cells

Toxoplasma gondii infection can be severe during pregnancy and in immunocompromised patients. Current therapies for toxoplasmosis are restricted to tachyzoites and have little or no effect on bradyzoites, which are maintained in tissue cysts. Consequently, new therapeutic alternatives have been proposed as the use of atovaquone has demonstrated partial efficacy against tachyzoites and bradyzoites. This work studies the effect of 3-bromopyruvate (3-BrPA), a compound that is being tested against cancer cells, on the infection of LLC-MK2 cells with T. gondii tachyzoites, RH strain. No effect of 3-BrPA on host cell proliferation or viability was observed, but it inhibited the proliferation of T. gondii. The incubation of cultures with lectin Dolichos biflorus agglutinin (DBA) showed the development of cystogenesis, and an ultrastructural analysis of parasite intracellular development confirmed morphological characteristics commonly found in tissue cysts. Moreover, the presence of degraded parasites and the influence of 3-BrPA on endodyogeny were observed. Infected cultures were alternatively treated with a combination of this compound plus atovaquone. This resulted in a 73% reduction in intracellular parasites after 24 h of treatment and a 71% reduction after 48 h; cyst wall formation did not occur in these cultures. Therefore, we conclude that the use of 3-BrPA may serve as an important tool for the study of (i) in vitro cystogenesis; (ii) parasite metabolism, requiring a deeper understanding of the target of action of this compound on T. gondii; (iii) the alternative parasite metabolic pathways; and (iv) the molecular/cellular mechanisms that trigger parasite death.