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Lim JYL, Boardman JM, Anderson C, Dickinson DL, Bennett D, Drummond SPA. Sleep restriction alters the integration of multiple information sources in probabilistic decision-making. J Sleep Res 2024:e14161. [PMID: 38308529 DOI: 10.1111/jsr.14161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 01/19/2024] [Accepted: 01/22/2024] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
The detrimental effects of sleep loss on overall decision-making have been well described. Due to the complex nature of decisions, there remains a need for studies to identify specific mechanisms of decision-making vulnerable to sleep loss. Bayesian perspectives of decision-making posit judgement formation during decision-making occurs via a process of integrating knowledge gleaned from past experiences (priors) with new information from current observations (likelihoods). We investigated the effects of sleep loss on the ability to integrate multiple sources of information during decision-making by reporting results from two experiments: the first implementing both sleep restriction (SR) and total sleep deprivation (TSD) protocols, and the second implementing an SR protocol. In both experiments, participants were administered the Bayes Decisions Task on which optimal performance requires the integration of Bayesian prior and likelihood information. Participants in Experiment 1 showed reduced reliance on both information sources after SR, while no significant change was observed after TSD. Participants in Experiment 2 showed reduced reliance on likelihood after SR, especially during morning testing sessions. No accuracy-related impairments resulting from SR and TSD were observed in both experiments. Our findings show SR affects decision-making through altering the way individuals integrate available sources of information. Additionally, the ability to integrate information during SR may be influenced by time of day. Broadly, our findings carry implications for working professionals who are required to make high-stakes decisions on the job, yet consistently receive insufficient sleep due to work schedule demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeryl Y L Lim
- School of Psychological Sciences and Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Johanna M Boardman
- School of Psychological Sciences and Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Clare Anderson
- School of Psychological Sciences and Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - David L Dickinson
- Department of Economics and CERPA, Appalachian State University, Boone, North Carolina, USA
- Economics Science Institute, Chapman University, Orange, California, USA
- Insititute of Labor Economics, Bonn, Germany
| | - Daniel Bennett
- School of Psychological Sciences and Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sean P A Drummond
- School of Psychological Sciences and Turner Institute for Brain and Mental Health, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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Gonçalves AD, Pezarat-Correia P, Vila-Chã C, Mendonça GV. Effects of Acute Sleep Deprivation on the Sequential Rate of Torque Development throughout the Force-Time Curve. Sleep Sci 2023; 16:e454-e461. [PMID: 38197028 PMCID: PMC10773507 DOI: 10.1055/s-0043-1776869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2022] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective The impact of sleep deprivation on the physiological determinants of explosive torque production remains poorly understood. We aimed at determining the acute effects of 24 hours of sleep deprivation on the sequential rate of torque development (RTD) obtained during plantar flexion through maximum voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC). Materials and Methods The study included 14 healthy-young adults (8 men and 6 women). The participants visited the laboratory on 2 different occasions: without and with 24 hours of sleep deprivation. In each session, the subjects were tested for RTD of the plantar flexors with concomitant recordings of the electromyographic (EMG) amplitude of the soleus over the following time intervals: 0 to 30, 30 to 50, 50 to 100, and 100 to 150 ms. Results Sleep deprivation did not affect peak RTD (without sleep deprivation: 283.3 ± 111.6 N.m.s -1 versus with sleep deprivation: 294.9 ± 99.2 N.m.s -1 ; p > 0.05) of plantar flexion. The sequential values of RTD, as well as the normalized amplitude of the soleus EMG, remained similar between both conditions (p > 0.05). Discussion In conclusion, we found that 24 hours of sleep deprivation do not affect muscle activation, nor explosive torque production throughout the torque-time curve. Thus, exercise performance and daily functionality in tasks involving rapid torque development might remain well preserved after 24 hours of acute sleep deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- André Dias Gonçalves
- Neuromuscular Research Lab, CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Cruz Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal
| | - Pedro Pezarat-Correia
- Neuromuscular Research Lab, CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Cruz Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal
| | - Carolina Vila-Chã
- CIDESD, Escola Superior de Educação, Comunicação e Desporto, Instituto Politécnico da Guarda, Guarda Portugal
| | - Gonçalo Vilhena Mendonça
- Neuromuscular Research Lab, CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Cruz Quebrada, Dafundo, Portugal
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Şen B, Kurtaran NE, Öztürk L. The effect of 24-hour sleep deprivation on subjective time perception. Int J Psychophysiol 2023; 192:91-97. [PMID: 37634768 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpsycho.2023.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 08/22/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we investigated the effect of 24-h total sleep deprivation on subjective time perception. Twenty-five participants aged 18-35 years (13 female and 12 male) were recruited. Time perception and cognitive assessments were performed twice: after a regular night's sleep and following a 24-h sleep deprivation. The retrospective and prospective tasks were used to measure time perception. In order to prevent order effect, the test orders were randomized. The Stroop test and the Wechsler Memory Scale-III were used to evaluate attention, processing speed, and memory. The repeated measures ANOVA was used to examine gender-by-sleep deprivation interactions on time perception. We found that retrospective time perception was significantly prolonged after sleep deprivation (p < 0.05). Women had a shorter prospective time estimation rate after adequate sleep than men, but this difference disappeared after sleep deprivation. The Stroop test showed improvement in cognitive flexibility after sleep deprivation (p < 0.05), and short-term or working memory appeared unaffected by one night of sleep deprivation. There was a negative correlation between sleepiness rate and working memory function in female subgroup. The results suggest that even short-term sleep deprivation can significantly affect time perception, which may have important implications in critical situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Buket Şen
- Trakya University Faculty of Medicine, Edirne, Turkey.
| | | | - Levent Öztürk
- Trakya University Faculty of Medicine, Edirne, Turkey; Trakya University Physiology Department, Edirne, Turkey.
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Rauchman SH, Zubair A, Jacob B, Rauchman D, Pinkhasov A, Placantonakis DG, Reiss AB. Traumatic brain injury: Mechanisms, manifestations, and visual sequelae. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1090672. [PMID: 36908792 PMCID: PMC9995859 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1090672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2022] [Accepted: 02/06/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) results when external physical forces impact the head with sufficient intensity to cause damage to the brain. TBI can be mild, moderate, or severe and may have long-term consequences including visual difficulties, cognitive deficits, headache, pain, sleep disturbances, and post-traumatic epilepsy. Disruption of the normal functioning of the brain leads to a cascade of effects with molecular and anatomical changes, persistent neuronal hyperexcitation, neuroinflammation, and neuronal loss. Destructive processes that occur at the cellular and molecular level lead to inflammation, oxidative stress, calcium dysregulation, and apoptosis. Vascular damage, ischemia and loss of blood brain barrier integrity contribute to destruction of brain tissue. This review focuses on the cellular damage incited during TBI and the frequently life-altering lasting effects of this destruction on vision, cognition, balance, and sleep. The wide range of visual complaints associated with TBI are addressed and repair processes where there is potential for intervention and neuronal preservation are highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aarij Zubair
- NYU Long Island School of Medicine, Mineola, NY, United States
| | - Benna Jacob
- NYU Long Island School of Medicine, Mineola, NY, United States
| | - Danielle Rauchman
- Department of Neuroscience, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Aaron Pinkhasov
- NYU Long Island School of Medicine, Mineola, NY, United States
| | | | - Allison B Reiss
- NYU Long Island School of Medicine, Mineola, NY, United States
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Olsthoorn IM, Holland AA, Hawkins RC, Cornelius AE, Baig MU, Yang G, Holland DC, Zaky W, Stavinoha PL. Sleep Disturbance and Its Association With Sluggish Cognitive Tempo and Attention in Pediatric Brain Tumor Survivors. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:918800. [PMID: 35812214 PMCID: PMC9259867 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.918800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Pediatric brain tumor (PBT) survivors are at risk for developing sleep disturbances. While in other pediatric populations sleep disturbance has been associated with worse cognitive functioning, it is unclear to what extent this relationship generalizes to PBT survivors. The aim of the current study was to assess the relationship between sleep disturbance and aspects of cognition, including sluggish cognitive tempo (SCT) as well as attention and working memory. Materials and Methods Eighty-three PBT survivors 6–18 years of age who were at least 3 months post-treatment were included in the present cross-sectional study. Level of sleep disturbance was measured as a composite score reflecting various sleep problems as rated by caregivers. Cognitive measures included caregiver-ratings of sluggish cognitive tempo and attention problems, as well as performance-based cognitive measures assessing attention and executive functioning. Hierarchical regression analysis was used to assess associations between sleep and cognition. Results Of all caregivers, 32.5% reported one or more sleep disturbances as “very/often true” and over 68% of caregivers rated at least one sleep-related item as “somewhat true.” Of all cognitive variables, scores were most frequently impaired for SCT (30%). A higher level of sleep disturbance was associated with worse SCT and parent-rated attention problems. Associations between sleep and performance-based cognitive measures assessing attention and working memory were not statistically significant. Conclusion Findings of the current study highlight the importance of further investigation into the relationship between sleep and cognition in PBT survivors, which may assist efforts to maximize cognitive outcome and health-related quality of life in PBT survivors. The current study additionally suggests further investigation of SCT in this population is warranted, as it may be more sensitive to detecting possible associations with sleep disturbance relative to discrete measures that assess cognitive performance under ideal circumstances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ineke M. Olsthoorn
- Department of Neurology, McGovern Medical School, University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston (UT Health), Houston, TX, United States
| | - Alice Ann Holland
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical School, Dallas, TX, United States
- Department of Psychiatry, Children’s Medical Center of Dallas, Dallas, TX, United States
| | - Raymond C. Hawkins
- School of Psychology, Fielding Graduate University, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Allen E. Cornelius
- School of Psychology, Fielding Graduate University, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Muhammad Usman Baig
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Grace Yang
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Daniel C. Holland
- School of Psychology, Fielding Graduate University, Santa Barbara, CA, United States
| | - Wafik Zaky
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Peter L. Stavinoha
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX, United States
- *Correspondence: Peter L. Stavinoha,
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Willroth EC, Gatchpazian A, Thai S, Lassetter B, Feinberg M, Ford BQ. The Insulating Function of Sleep for Well-being: Daily Sleep Quality Attenuates the Link Between Current Affect and Global Life Satisfaction. AFFECTIVE SCIENCE 2022; 3:318-329. [PMID: 36045999 PMCID: PMC9382925 DOI: 10.1007/s42761-021-00092-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/02/2021] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Transient affect can be tightly linked with people's global life satisfaction (i.e., affect globalizing). This volatile judgment style leaves life satisfaction vulnerable to the inevitable highs and lows of everyday life, and has been associated with lower psychological health. The present study examines a potentially fundamental but untested regulatory role of sleep: insulating people's global life satisfaction from the affective highs and lows of daily life. We tested this hypothesis in two daily diary samples (N 1 = 3,011 daily diary observations of 274 participants and N 2 = 12,740 daily diary observations of 811 participants). Consistent with preregistered hypotheses, following nights of reported high-quality sleep, the link between current affect and global life satisfaction was attenuated (i.e., lower affect globalizing). Sleep-based interventions are broadly useful for improving psychological health and the current findings suggest another avenue by which such interventions may improve well-being: by providing crucial protection against the risks associated with affect globalizing. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s42761-021-00092-4.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Arasteh Gatchpazian
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, ON M1C1A4 Canada
| | - Sabrina Thai
- Brock University, St. Catharines, Ontario, Canada
| | - Bethany Lassetter
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, ON M1C1A4 Canada
| | - Matthew Feinberg
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, ON M1C1A4 Canada
| | - Brett Q. Ford
- Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, 1265 Military Trail, Toronto, ON M1C1A4 Canada
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Frech ML, Häusser JA, Siems MC, Loschelder DD. Anchoring and Sleep Inertia. Exp Psychol 2022; 69:146-154. [DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Abstract. Many occupational settings require individuals to make important decisions immediately after awakening. Although a plethora of psychological research has separately examined both sleep and anchoring effects on decision-making, little is known about their interaction. In the present study, we seek to shed light on the link between sleep inertia, the performance impairment immediately after awakening, and individuals’ susceptibility to the anchoring bias. We proposed that sleep inertia would moderate participants’ adjustment from anchors because sleep inertia leads to less cognitive effort invested, resulting in a stronger anchoring effect. One hundred four subjects were randomly assigned to an experimental group that answered anchoring tasks immediately after being awakened at nighttime or a control group that answered anchoring tasks at daytime. Our findings replicated the well-established anchoring effect in that higher anchors led participants to higher estimates than lower anchors. We did not find significant effects of sleep inertia. While the sleep inertia group reported greater sleepiness and having invested less cognitive effort compared to the control group, no systematic anchoring differences emerged, and cognitive effort did not qualify as a mediator of the anchoring effect. Bayesian analyses provide empirical evidence for these null findings. Implications for the anchoring literature and future research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marie-Lena Frech
- School of Management and Technology, Leuphana University Lüneburg, Germany
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8
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Differences in the Effect of Sleep Deprivation on the Postural Stability among Men and Women. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18073796. [PMID: 33916500 PMCID: PMC8038654 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18073796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Objective: Sleepiness caused by sleep deprivation may increase the risk of injuries and damages during physical activity. Individual data so far indicate a generally better static postural stability of women regardless of sleeping conditions. The main aim of this study was to assess the impact of sleep deprivation on postural stability according to gender after 24 h of sleep deprivation. Methods: Participants included 83 students (36 men and 47 women). Postural stability was measured with eyes open and closed eyes before and after sleep deprivation. Data from posturographic platform were used to assess postural stability objectively. Results: The type of test determined the size of observed changes in postural stability. The data suggest that women are better able to cope with the effects of sleep deprivation than men. Conclusion: Postural control system is very important in sport and in physically active people. The results show that men are more sensitive to sleep deprivation than women because they had higher COP (center of pressure) values in tests. Less postural stability of the body due to sleep deprivation indicates a higher risk of injury during physical activity.
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Mathew GM, Strayer SM, Bailey DS, Buzzell K, Ness KM, Schade MM, Nahmod NG, Buxton OM, Chang AM. Changes in Subjective Motivation and Effort During Sleep Restriction Moderate Interindividual Differences in Attentional Performance in Healthy Young Men. Nat Sci Sleep 2021; 13:1117-1136. [PMID: 34285617 PMCID: PMC8286723 DOI: 10.2147/nss.s294409] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
PURPOSE The effects of sleep restriction on subjective alertness, motivation, and effort vary among individuals and may explain interindividual differences in attention during sleep restriction. We investigated whether individuals with a greater decrease in subjective alertness or motivation, or a greater increase in subjective effort (versus other participants), demonstrated poorer attention when sleep restricted. PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS Fifteen healthy men (M±SD, 22.3±2.8 years) completed a study with three nights of 10-hour time in bed (baseline), five nights of 5-hour time in bed (sleep restriction), and two nights of 10-hour time in bed (recovery). Participants completed a 10-minute psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) of sustained attention and rated alertness, motivation, and effort every two hours during wake (range: 3-9 administrations on a given day). Analyses examined performance across the study (first two days excluded) moderated by per-participant change in subjective alertness, motivation, or effort from baseline to sleep restriction. For significant interactions, we investigated the effect of study day2 (day*day) on the outcome at low (mean-1 SD) and high (mean+1 SD) levels of the moderator (N = 15, all analyses). RESULTS False starts increased across sleep restriction in participants who reported lower (mean-1 SD) but not preserved (mean+1 SD) motivation during sleep restriction. Lapses increased across sleep restriction regardless of change in subjective motivation, with a more pronounced increase in participants who reported lower versus preserved motivation. Lapses increased across sleep restriction in participants who reported higher (mean+1 SD) but not preserved (mean-1 SD) effort during sleep restriction. Change in subjective alertness did not moderate the effects of sleep restriction on attention. CONCLUSION Vigilance declines during sleep restriction regardless of change in subjective alertness or motivation, but individuals with reduced motivation exhibit poorer inhibition. Individuals with preserved subjective alertness still perform poorly during sleep restriction, while those reporting additional effort demonstrate impaired vigilance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina Marie Mathew
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Stephen M Strayer
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - David S Bailey
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Katherine Buzzell
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Kelly M Ness
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Margeaux M Schade
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Nicole G Nahmod
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Orfeu M Buxton
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Anne-Marie Chang
- Department of Biobehavioral Health, College of Health and Human Development, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,College of Nursing, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
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Bathla M, Goyal A, Anjum S, Bhusri L, Singh AH, Gupta P. Assessment of quality of sleep and its association with body mass index among medical consultants working in a medical college in northern India. Indian J Psychiatry 2020; 62:306-311. [PMID: 32773874 PMCID: PMC7368445 DOI: 10.4103/psychiatry.indianjpsychiatry_32_19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2019] [Accepted: 07/26/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Medical specialist/consultants are exposed to various factors such as long duty hours, call duties, academics, meetings and regulation of departmental work which has adversely affected their sleep quality. OBJECTIVE To assess sleep quality and association of body mass index with quality of sleep among medical consultants working in medical college. METHOD AND TOOL This is a cross-sectional study and was done by convenient sampling technique. Pittsburg Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) was used as the assessment tool which categorizes sleep as good or poor according to the score. Chi-square test was applied to establish an association with the variables. RESULTS A total of 67 responses were obtained, of which 28 showed good sleep on PSQI. Among consultants having good quality sleep, the majority were females (n=18); aged above 40 years (n=17). No relationship was seen with BMI and chronic disease. Consultants spending more than 85% of the time in bed sleeping (p< 0.006) and those going to bed before 10.30 pm (p<0.026) had good sleep quality. CONCLUSION Good quality of sleep was observed in females, people above 40 years and those who don't have any chronic disease, though this association of sleep quality with the factors was not significant. Going to bed early (before 10:30 pm) had a positive effect on sleep quality (p<0.026). In general, poor sleep quality was seen among medical consultants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Bathla
- Department of Psychiatry, Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Ambala, Haryana, India
| | - Anshu Goyal
- Department of Preventive and Social Medicine, Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Ambala, Haryana, India
| | - Shazia Anjum
- Department of Psychiatry, Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Ambala, Haryana, India
| | - Leezu Bhusri
- Department of Psychiatry, Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Ambala, Haryana, India
| | - Angad Harshbir Singh
- Department of Psychiatry, Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Ambala, Haryana, India
| | - Parul Gupta
- Department of Psychiatry, Maharishi Markandeshwar Institute of Medical Sciences and Research, Ambala, Haryana, India
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