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Ertem T, Uysal O. Differentiation of neural stem cells from human olfactory mucosa into dopaminergic neuron-like cells. IUBMB Life 2024; 76:697-711. [PMID: 38662920 DOI: 10.1002/iub.2822] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/31/2024]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to develop an alternative treatment method for neurodegenerative diseases with dopaminergic neuron loss such as Parkinson's disease by differentiating cells obtained from human olfactory mucosa-derived neural stem cells (hOM-NSCs) with neurotrophic agents in vitro. hOM-NSCs were isolated and subjected to immunophenotypic and MTT analyses. These hOM-NSCs were then cultured in a 3D environment to form neurospheres. The neurospheres were subjected to immunophenotypic analysis and neuronal differentiation assays. Furthermore, hOM-NSCs were differentiated into dopaminergic neuron-like cells in vitro. After differentiation, the dopaminergic neuron-like cells were subjected to immunophenotypic (TH, MAP2) and genotypic (DAT, PITX3, NURR1, TH) characterization. Flow cytometric analysis showed that NSCs were positive for cell surface markers (CD56, CD133). Immunofluorescence analysis showed that NSCs were positive for markers with neuronal and glial cell characteristics (SOX2, NESTIN, TUBB3, GFAP and NG2). Immunofluorescence analysis after differentiation of hOM-NSCs into dopaminergic neuron-like cells in vitro showed that they were positive for a protein specific for dopaminergic neurons (TH). qRT-PCR analysis showed that the expression of dopaminergic neuron-specific genes (DAT, TH, PITX3, NURR1) was significantly increased. It was concluded that hOM-NSCs may be a source of neural stem cells that can be used for cell replacement therapies in neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease, are resistant to cell culture, can differentiate into neuronal and glial lineage, are easy to obtain and are cost effective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tuğba Ertem
- Cellular Therapy and Stem Cell Production Application and Research Centre, ESTEM, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, Turkey
- Department of Stem Cell, Institute of Health Sciences, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, Turkey
| | - Onur Uysal
- Cellular Therapy and Stem Cell Production Application and Research Centre, ESTEM, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, Turkey
- Department of Stem Cell, Institute of Health Sciences, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Eskisehir, Turkey
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2
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Bayat AH, Saeidikhoo S, Ebrahimi V, Mesgar S, Joneidi M, Soltani R, Aghajanpour F, Mohammadzadeh I, Torabi A, Abdollahifar MA, Bagher Z, Alizadeh R, Aliaghaei A. Bilateral striatal transplantation of human olfactory stem cells ameliorates motor function, prevents necroptosis-induced cell death and improves striatal volume in the rat model of Huntington's disease. J Chem Neuroanat 2020; 112:101903. [PMID: 33278568 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2020.101903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2020] [Revised: 10/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Cellular transplant therapy is one of the most common therapeutic strategies used to mitigate symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's disease (HD). Briefly, the main goal of the present study was to investigate HD's motor deficits through the olfactory ecto-mesenchymals stem cells (OE-MSC) secretome. OE-MSCs were characterized immunophenotypically by the positive expression of CD73, CD90 and CD105. Also, three specific markers of OE-MSCs were obtained from the nasal cavity of human volunteers. The main features of OE-MSCs are their high proliferation, ease of harvesting and growth factor secretion. All animals were randomly assigned to three groups: control, 3-NP + vehicle treated and 3-NP + Cell groups. In both experimental groups, the subjects received intraperitoneal 3-NP (30 mg/kg) injections once a day for five consecutive days, followed by the bilateral intra-striatal implantation of OE-MSCs in the 3-NP + Cell group. Muscular function was assessed by electromyography and rotarod test, and the locomotor function was evaluated using the open field test. According to our findings, striatal transplants of OE-MSCs reduced microglial inflammatory factor, the tumor necrosis factor (TNFα) in the 3-NP + Cell group, with a significant reduction in RIP3, the markers of necroptosis in striatum. In addition to the remarkable recovery of the striatal volume after engraftment, the motor activities were enhanced in the 3-NP + cell group compared to the 3-NP + vehicle group. Taken together, our results demonstrated the in vivo advantages of OE-MSCs treatment in an HD rat model with numerous positive paracrine effects including behavioral and anatomical recovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir-Hossein Bayat
- Department of Neuroscience, Saveh University of Medical Sciences, Saveh, Iran.
| | - Sara Saeidikhoo
- Neuroscience Lab, Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Vahid Ebrahimi
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran.
| | - Somaye Mesgar
- Neuroscience Lab, Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mohammadjavad Joneidi
- Neuroscience Lab, Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Reza Soltani
- Neuroscience Lab, Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Fakhroddin Aghajanpour
- Neuroscience Lab, Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Ibrahim Mohammadzadeh
- Neuroscience Lab, Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Abolfazl Torabi
- Neuroscience Lab, Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Mohammad-Amin Abdollahifar
- Neuroscience Lab, Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Zohreh Bagher
- ENT and Head and Neck Research Center and Department, Hazrat Rasoul Akram Hospital, The Five Senses Health Institute, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Rafieh Alizadeh
- ENT and Head and Neck Research Center and Department, Hazrat Rasoul Akram Hospital, The Five Senses Health Institute, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
| | - Abbas Aliaghaei
- Neuroscience Lab, Anatomy and Cell Biology Department, School of Medicine, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Pharmacological Transdifferentiation of Human Nasal Olfactory Stem Cells into Dopaminergic Neurons. Stem Cells Int 2019; 2019:2945435. [PMID: 31236114 PMCID: PMC6545791 DOI: 10.1155/2019/2945435] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The discovery of novel drugs for neurodegenerative diseases has been a real challenge over the last decades. The development of patient- and/or disease-specific in vitro models represents a powerful strategy for the development and validation of lead candidates in preclinical settings. The implementation of a reliable platform modeling dopaminergic neurons will be an asset in the study of dopamine-associated pathologies such as Parkinson's disease. Disease models based on cell reprogramming strategies, using either human-induced pluripotent stem cells or transcription factor-mediated transdifferentiation, are among the most investigated strategies. However, multipotent adult stem cells remain of high interest to devise direct conversion protocols and establish in vitro models that could bypass certain limitations associated with reprogramming strategies. Here, we report the development of a six-step chemically defined protocol that drives the transdifferentiation of human nasal olfactory stem cells into dopaminergic neurons. Morphological changes were progressively accompanied by modifications matching transcript and protein dopaminergic signatures such as LIM homeobox transcription factor 1 alpha (LMX1A), LMX1B, and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) expression, within 42 days of differentiation. Phenotypic changes were confirmed by the production of dopamine from differentiated neurons. This new strategy paves the way to develop more disease-relevant models by establishing reprogramming-free patient-specific dopaminergic cell models for drug screening and/or target validation for neurodegenerative diseases.
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Stamegna JC, Sadelli K, Escoffier G, Girard SD, Veron AD, Bonnet A, Khrestchatisky M, Gauthier P, Roman FS. Grafts of Olfactory Stem Cells Restore Breathing and Motor Functions after Rat Spinal Cord Injury. J Neurotrauma 2018; 35:1765-1780. [PMID: 29357739 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2017.5383] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The transplantation of olfactory ecto-mesenchymal stem cells (OEMSCs) could be a helpful therapeutic strategy for spinal cord repair. Using an acute rat model of high cervical contusion that provokes a persistent hemidiaphragmatic and foreleg paralysis, we evaluated the therapeutic effect of a delayed syngeneic transplantation (two days post-contusion) of OEMSCs within the injured spinal cord. Respiratory function was assessed using diaphragmatic electromyography and neuroelectrophysiological recordings of phrenic nerves (innervating the diaphragm). Locomotor function was evaluated using the ladder-walking locomotor test. Cellular reorganization in the injured area was also studied using immunohistochemical and microscopic techniques. We report a substantial improvement in breathing movements, in activities of the ipsilateral phrenic nerve and ipsilateral diaphragm, and also in locomotor abilities four months post-transplantation with nasal OEMSCs. Moreover, in the grafted spinal cord, axonal disorganization and inflammation were reduced. Some grafted stem cells adopted a neuronal phenotype, and axonal sparing was observed in the injury site. The therapeutic effect on the supraspinal command is presumably because of both neuronal replacements and beneficial paracrine effects on the injury area. Our study provides evidence that nasal OEMSCs could be a first step in clinical application, particularly in patients with reduced breathing/locomotor movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Claude Stamegna
- 1 Institut de Neurophysiopathologie, Aix-Marseille Université , Marseille, France
| | - Kevin Sadelli
- 1 Institut de Neurophysiopathologie, Aix-Marseille Université , Marseille, France
| | - Guy Escoffier
- 1 Institut de Neurophysiopathologie, Aix-Marseille Université , Marseille, France
| | - Stéphane D Girard
- 1 Institut de Neurophysiopathologie, Aix-Marseille Université , Marseille, France
| | - Antoine D Veron
- 1 Institut de Neurophysiopathologie, Aix-Marseille Université , Marseille, France .,2 IRSEA, Research Institute in Semiochemistry and Applied Ethology , Apt, France
| | - Amandine Bonnet
- 1 Institut de Neurophysiopathologie, Aix-Marseille Université , Marseille, France
| | | | - Patrick Gauthier
- 3 Laboratoire de Neurosciences et Cognitives, Aix-Marseille Université , Marseille, France
| | - François S Roman
- 1 Institut de Neurophysiopathologie, Aix-Marseille Université , Marseille, France
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Sonntag KC, Song B, Lee N, Jung JH, Cha Y, Leblanc P, Neff C, Kong SW, Carter BS, Schweitzer J, Kim KS. Pluripotent stem cell-based therapy for Parkinson's disease: Current status and future prospects. Prog Neurobiol 2018; 168:1-20. [PMID: 29653250 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2018.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Revised: 03/13/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most common neurodegenerative disorders, which affects about 0.3% of the general population. As the population in the developed world ages, this creates an escalating burden on society both in economic terms and in quality of life for these patients and for the families that support them. Although currently available pharmacological or surgical treatments may significantly improve the quality of life of many patients with PD, these are symptomatic treatments that do not slow or stop the progressive course of the disease. Because motor impairments in PD largely result from loss of midbrain dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta, PD has long been considered to be one of the most promising target diseases for cell-based therapy. Indeed, numerous clinical and preclinical studies using fetal cell transplantation have provided proof of concept that cell replacement therapy may be a viable therapeutic approach for PD. However, the use of human fetal cells as a standardized therapeutic regimen has been fraught with fundamental ethical, practical, and clinical issues, prompting scientists to explore alternative cell sources. Based on groundbreaking establishments of human embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells, these human pluripotent stem cells have been the subject of extensive research, leading to tremendous advancement in our understanding of these novel classes of stem cells and promising great potential for regenerative medicine. In this review, we discuss the prospects and challenges of human pluripotent stem cell-based cell therapy for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai-C Sonntag
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States; Laboratory for Translational Research on Neurodegeneration, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, United States; Program for Neuropsychiatric Research, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, United States
| | - Bin Song
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States; Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Program in Neuroscience and Harvard Stem Cell Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, United States
| | - Nayeon Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States; Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Program in Neuroscience and Harvard Stem Cell Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, United States
| | - Jin Hyuk Jung
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States; Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Program in Neuroscience and Harvard Stem Cell Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, United States
| | - Young Cha
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States; Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Program in Neuroscience and Harvard Stem Cell Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, United States
| | - Pierre Leblanc
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States; Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Program in Neuroscience and Harvard Stem Cell Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, United States
| | - Carolyn Neff
- Kaiser Permanente Medical Group, Irvine, CA, 92618, United States
| | - Sek Won Kong
- Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, 02115, United States; Computational Health Informatics Program, Boston Children's Hospital, Boston, MA, 02115, United States
| | - Bob S Carter
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, United States
| | - Jeffrey Schweitzer
- Department of Neurosurgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, United States.
| | - Kwang-Soo Kim
- Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, United States; Molecular Neurobiology Laboratory, Program in Neuroscience and Harvard Stem Cell Institute, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, MA, 02478, United States.
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Soluble Factors from Human Olfactory Neural Stem/Progenitor Cells Influence the Fate Decisions of Hippocampal Neural Precursor Cells. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 55:8014-8037. [PMID: 29498005 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-0906-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Neurogenesis plays a significant role during adulthood, and the observation that neural stem cells reside in the central nervous system and the olfactory epithelium has attracted attention due to their importance in neuronal regeneration. In addition, soluble factors (SFs) release by neural stem cells may modulate the neurogenic process. Thus, in this study, we identified the SFs released by olfactory human neural stem/progenitor cells (hNS/PCs-OE). These cells express Ki67, nestin, and βIII-tubulin, indicating their neural lineage. The hNS/PCs-OE also express PSD95 and tau proteins during proliferation, but increased levels are observed after differentiation. Thus, we evaluated the effects of SFs from hNS/PCs-OE on the viability, proliferation, and differentiation potential of adult murine hippocampal neural precursor cells (AHPCs). SFs from hNS/PCs-OE maintain cells in the precursor and proliferative stages and mainly promote the astrocytic differentiation of AHPCs. These effects involved the activation, as measured by phosphorylation, of several proteins (Erk1/2; Akt/PRAS40/GSK3β and JAK/STAT) involved in key events of the neurogenic process. Moreover, according to the results from the antibody-based microarray approach, among the soluble factors, hNS/PCs-OE produce interleukin-6 (IL-6) and neurotrophin 4 (NT4). However, residual epidermal growth factor (EGF) was also detected. These proteins partially reproduced the effects of SFs from hNS/PCs-OE on AHPCs, and the mechanism underlying these effects is mediated by Src proteins, which have been implicated in EGF-induced transactivation of TrkB receptor. The results of the present study suggest the potential use of SFs from hNS/PCs-OE in controlling the differentiation potential of AHPCs. Thus, the potential clinical relevance of hNS/PCs-OE is worth pursuing.
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Gao Y, Winstead W, Lei Z, Lu C, Roisen FJ, El-Mallakh RS. Olfactory Neuroepithelial Neural Progenitor Cells from Subjects with Bipolar I Disorder. J Cent Nerv Syst Dis 2017; 9:1179573517694529. [PMID: 28469524 PMCID: PMC5392049 DOI: 10.1177/1179573517694529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2016] [Accepted: 09/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Research into the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder (BD) is limited by the inability to examine brain cellular processes in subjects with the illness. Methods: Endoscopic biopsy was performed in subjects with bipolar I disorder to establish olfactory neural progenitor (ONP) cell lines. Olfactory function was assessed prebiopsy and postbiopsy using the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT). Cells were characterized to determine their lineage. Results: There were no significant complications associated with the biopsy procedure, including olfaction. Outpatient olfactory neuroepithelial biopsy yielded ONP cells in three out of 13 biopsy attempts (23.1%). ONPs were positive for neuron-specific proteins (β-tubulin III, nestin, hexaribonucleotide binding protein-3, and peripherin) and glia-specific proteins (glial fibrillary acidic protein and myelin basic protein). Conclusions: ONP cells can be obtained safely from awake outpatients and are potentially useful for pathophysiological studies of bipolar illness and perhaps other neuropsychiatric conditions. Such cells allow for the investigation of potential pathological cellular processes without the confounding factors of genetic manipulation, which is required for induced pluripotent cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonglin Gao
- Mood Disorders Research Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Welby Winstead
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery and Communicative Disorders, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Zhenmin Lei
- Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology & Women's Health, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Chengliang Lu
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Fred J Roisen
- Department of Anatomical Sciences and Neurobiology, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY, USA
| | - Rif S El-Mallakh
- Professor and Director, Mood Disorders Research Program, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Louisville School of Medicine, Louisville, KY, USA
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Franco I, Ortiz-López L, Roque-Ramírez B, Ramírez-Rodríguez GB, Lamas M. Pharmacological inhibition of DNA methyltransferase 1 promotes neuronal differentiation from rodent and human nasal olfactory stem/progenitor cell cultures. Int J Dev Neurosci 2017; 58:65-73. [PMID: 28161254 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2017.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2016] [Revised: 01/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Nasal olfactory stem and neural progenitor cells (NOS/PCs) are considered possible tools for regenerative stem cell therapies in neurodegenerative diseases. Neurogenesis is a complex process regulated by extrinsic and intrinsic signals that include DNA-methylation and other chromatin modifications that could be experimentally manipulated in order to increase neuronal differentiation. The aim of the present study was the characterization of primary cultures and consecutive passages (P2-P10) of NOS/PCs isolated from male Swiss-Webster (mNOS/PCs) or healthy humans (hNOS/PCs). We evaluated and compared cellular morphology, proliferation rates and the expression pattern of pluripotency-associated markers and DNA methylation-associated gene expression in these cultures. Neuronal differentiation was induced by exposure to all-trans retinoic acid and forskolin for 7 days and evaluated by morphological analysis and immunofluorescence against neuronal markers MAP2, NSE and MAP1B. In response to the inductive cues mNOS/PCs expressed NSE (75.67%) and MAP2 (35.34%); whereas the majority of the hNOS/PCs were immunopositive to MAP1B. Treatment with procainamide, a specific inhibitor of DNA methyltransferase 1 (DNMT1), increases in the number of forskolin'/retinoic acid-induced mature neuronal marker-expressing mNOS/PCs cells and enhances neurite development in hNOS/PCs. Our results indicate that mice and human nasal olfactory stem/progenitors cells share pluripotency-related gene expression suggesting that their application for stem cell therapy is worth pursuing and that DNA methylation inhibitors could be efficient tools to enhance neuronal differentiation from these cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Franco
- Departamento de Farmacobiología, CINVESTAV-Sede Sur, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - L Ortiz-López
- Laboratorio de Neurogénesis, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - B Roque-Ramírez
- Departamento de Farmacobiología, CINVESTAV-Sede Sur, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - G B Ramírez-Rodríguez
- Laboratorio de Neurogénesis, Instituto Nacional de Psiquiatría Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz, Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - M Lamas
- Departamento de Farmacobiología, CINVESTAV-Sede Sur, Ciudad de México, Mexico.
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