The Role of Cathepsin B in Pathophysiologies of Non-tumor and Tumor tissues: A Systematic Review

Nano revolution of DNA nanostructures redefining cancer therapeutics-A comprehensive review

DNA nanostructures are a promising tool in cancer treatment, offering an innovative way to improve the effectiveness of therapies. These nanostructures can be made solely from DNA or combined with other materials to overcome the limitations of traditional single-drug treatments. There is growing interest in developing nanosystems capable of delivering multiple drugs simultaneously, addressing challenges such as drug resistance. Engineered DNA nanostructures are designed to precisely deliver different drugs to specific locations, enhancing therapeutic effects. By attaching targeting molecules, these nanostructures can recognize and bind to cancer cells, increasing treatment precision. This approach offers tailored solutions for targeted drug delivery, enabling the delivery of multiple drugs in a coordinated manner. This review explores the advancements and applications of DNA nanostructures in cancer treatment, with a focus on targeted drug delivery and multi-drug therapy. It discusses the benefits and current limitations of nanoscale formulations in cancer therapy, categorizing DNA nanostructures into pure forms and hybrid versions optimized for drug delivery. Furthermore, the review examines ongoing research efforts and translational possibilities, along with challenges in clinical integration. By highlighting the advancements in DNA nanostructures, this review aims to underscore their potential in improving cancer treatment outcomes.

Modular Development of Enzyme-Activatable Proteolysis Targeting Chimeras for Selective Protein Degradation and Cancer Targeting

As an emerging therapeutic modality, proteolysis targeting chimeras (PROTACs) indiscriminately degrade proteins in both healthy and diseased cells, posing a risk of on-target off-site toxicity in normal tissues. Herein, we present the modular development of enzyme-activatable PROTACs, which utilize enzyme-recognition moieties to block protein degradation activities and can be specifically activated by elevated enzymes in cancer cells to enable cell-selective protein degradation and cancer targeting. We identified the methylene alkoxy carbamate (MAC) unit as an optimal self-immolative linker, possessing high stability and release efficiency for conjugating enzyme-recognition moieties with PROTACs. Leveraging the MAC linker, we developed a series of enzyme-activatable PROTACs, harnessing distinct enzymes for cancer-cell-selective protein degradation. Significantly, we introduced the first dual-enzyme-activatable PROTAC that requires the presence of two cancer-associated enzymes for activation, demonstrating highly selective protein degradation in cancer cells over nonmalignant cells, potent in vivo antitumor efficacy, and no off-tumor toxicity to normal tissues. The broad applicability of enzyme-activatable PROTACs was further demonstrated by caging other PROTACs via the MAC linker to target different proteins and E3 ligases. Our work underscores the substantial potential of enzyme-activatable PROTACs in overcoming the off-site toxicity associated with conventional PROTACs and offers new opportunities for targeted cancer treatment.

Identification of ferroptosis-related gene signature for tuberculosis diagnosis and therapy efficacy

Diagnosis of tuberculosis remains a challenge when microbiological tests are negative. Immune cell atlas of patients with tuberculosis and healthy controls were established by single-cell transcriptome. Through integrated analysis of scRNA-seq with microarray and bulk RNA sequencing data, a ferroptosis-related gene signature containing ACSL4, CTSB, and TLR4 genes that were associated with tuberculosis disease was identified. Four gene expression datasets from blood samples of patients with tuberculosis, latent tuberculosis infection, and healthy controls were used to assess the diagnostic value of the gene signature. The areas under the ROC curve for the combined gene signature were 1.000, 0.866, 0.912, and 0.786, respectively, in differentiating active tuberculosis from latent infection. During anti-tuberculosis treatment, the expression of the gene signature decreased significantly in cured patients with tuberculosis. In conclusion, the ferroptosis-related gene signature was associated with tuberculosis treatment efficacy and was a promising biomarker for differentiating active tuberculosis from latent infection.

Milk Fat Globule Membrane-Containing Protein Powder Promotes Fitness in Caenorhabditis elegans

Milk-derived peptides and milk fat globule membrane (MFGM) have gained interest as health-promoting food ingredients. However, the mechanisms by which these nutraceuticals modulate the function of biological systems often remain unclear. We utilized Caenorhabditis elegans to elucidate how MFGM-containing protein powder (MProPow), previously used in a clinical trial, affect the physiology of this model organism. Our results demonstrate that MProPow does not affect lifespan but promotes the fitness of the animals. Surprisingly, gene expression analysis revealed that MProPow decreases the expression of genes functioning on innate immunity, which also translates into reduced survival on pathogenic bacteria. One of the innate immunity-associated genes showing reduced expression upon MProPow supplementation is cpr-3, the homolog of human cathepsin B. Interestingly, knockdown of cpr-3 enhances fitness, but not in MProPow-treated animals, suggesting that MProPow contributes to fitness by downregulating the expression of this gene. In summary, this research highlights the value of C. elegans in testing the biological activity of food supplements and nutraceuticals. Furthermore, this study should encourage investigations into whether milk-derived peptides and MFGM mediate their beneficial effects through the modulation of cathepsin B expression in humans.

Association of Serum Proteases and Acute Phase Factors Levels with Survival Outcomes in Patients with Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) represents a substantial burden on global healthcare, contributing to significant morbidity and mortality worldwide. Despite advances in screening methodologies, its incidence remains high, necessitating continued efforts in early detection and treatment. Neoplastic invasion and metastasis are primary determinants of CRC lethality, emphasizing the urgency of understanding underlying mechanisms to develop effective therapeutic strategies. This study aimed to explore the potential of serum biomarkers in predicting survival outcomes in CRC patients, with a focus on cathepsin B (CB), leukocytic elastase (LE), total sialic acid (TSA), lipid-associated sialic acid (LASA), antitrypsin activity (ATA), C-reactive protein (CRP), and cystatin C (CC). We recruited 185 CRC patients and 35 healthy controls, assessing demographic variables, tumor characteristics, and 7 serum biomarker levels, including (1) CB, (2) LE, (3) TSA, (4) LASA, (5) ATA, (6) CRP, and (7) CC. Statistical analyses included ANOVA with Tukey's post hoc tests and MANOVA for continuous variables. Student's t-test was used for dependent samples, while non-parametric tests like Mann-Whitney U and Wilcoxon signed-rank tests were applied for variables deviating from the normal distribution. Categorical variables were assessed using chi-square and Kruskal-Wallis tests. Spearman's rank correlation coefficient was utilized to examine variable correlations. Survival analysis employed the Kaplan-Meier method with a log-rank test for comparing survival times between groups. Significant associations were observed between CB (p = 0.04), LE (p = 0.01), and TSA (p = 0.008) levels and survival outcomes in CRC patients. Dukes' classification stages also showed a significant correlation with survival (p = 0.001). However, no significant associations were found for LASA, ATA, CRP, and CC. Multivariate analysis of LE, TSA, and ATA demonstrated a notable correlation with survival (p = 0.041), notwithstanding ATA's lack of significance in univariate analysis (p = 0.13). CB, LE, and TSA emerged as promising diagnostic markers with prognostic value in CRC, potentially aiding in early diagnosis and treatment planning. Further research is needed to validate these findings and explore additional prognostic indicators.

Autophagic-lysosomal damage induced by swainsonine is protected by trehalose through activation of TFEB-regulated pathway in renal tubular epithelial cells

Swainsonine (SW) is the main toxic component of locoweed. Previous studies have shown that kidney damage is an early pathologic change in locoweed poisoning in animals. Trehalose induces autophagy and alleviates lysosomal damage, while its protective effect and mechanism against the toxic injury induced by SW is not clear. Based on the published literature, we hypothesize that transcription factor EB(TFEB) -regulated is targeted by SW and activating TFEB by trehalose would reverse the toxic effects. In this study, we investigate the mechanism of protective effects of trehalose using renal tubular epithelial cells. The results showed that SW induced an increase in the expression level of microtubule-associated protein light chain 3-II and p62 proteins and a decrease in the expression level of ATPase H+ transporting V1 Subunit A, Cathepsin B, Cathepsin D, lysosome-associated membrane protein 2 and TFEB proteins in renal tubular epithelial cells in a time and dose-dependent manner suggesting TFEB-regulated lysosomal pathway is adversely affected by SW. Conversely, treatment with trehalose, a known activator of TFEB promote TFEB nuclear translocation suggesting that TFEB plays an important role in protection against SW toxicity. We demonstrated in lysosome staining that SW reduced the number of lysosomes and increased the luminal pH, while trehalose could counteract these SW-induced effects. In summary, our results demonstrated for the first time that trehalose could alleviate the autophagy degradation disorder and lysosomal damage induced by SW. Our results provide an interesting method for reversion of SW-induced toxicity in farm animals and furthermore, activation of TFEB by trehalose suggesting novel mechanism of treating lysosomal storage diseases.

Role of Cathepsin B Expression in Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma: A Comprehensive Review

This comprehensive review delves into the intricate landscape of oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) by examining the role of cathepsin B expression in its pathogenesis. OSCC, a prevalent and clinically significant oral malignancy, poses a considerable global health burden, necessitating a thorough exploration of its underlying molecular mechanisms. Cathepsin B, a lysosomal cysteine protease, emerges as a critical player in OSCC, influencing tumour initiation, invasion, and metastasis. The review begins with a brief overview of OSCC, emphasizing its epidemiological and clinical features, followed by exploring the significance of studying cathepsin B expression in this context. In the manuscript, the structure and function of cathepsin B are elucidated, providing a foundation for understanding its aberrant expression in OSCC. Clinical studies revealing correlations with tumour grade and stage, along with prognostic significance, are scrutinized, offering insights into the potential diagnostic and prognostic utility of cathepsin B. The biological functions of cathepsin B in OSCC, including its impact on tumour invasion and modulation of apoptosis, are comprehensively discussed. The Therapeutic Implications section explores targeting cathepsin B as a potential strategy, emphasizing the need for future research to overcome associated challenges. In the Conclusion section, the review synthesizes key findings, delineates implications for future research, and highlights the potential impact of cathepsin B on OSCC diagnosis and treatment, contributing to the ongoing efforts to advance our understanding of this complex malignancy, which is associated with a high mortality rate and improve clinical outcomes.

Development of a Novel Biomarker for the Progression of Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis

The progression of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is diverse and unpredictable. We identified and validated a new biomarker for IPF progression. To identify a candidate gene to predict progression, we assessed differentially expressed genes in patients with advanced IPF compared with early IPF and controls in three lung sample cohorts. Candidate gene expression was confirmed using immunohistochemistry and Western blotting of lung tissue samples from an independent IPF clinical cohort. Biomarker potential was assessed using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of serum samples from the retrospective validation cohort. We verified that the final candidate gene reflected the progression of IPF in a prospective validation cohort. In the RNA-seq comparative analysis of lung tissues, CD276, COL7A1, CTSB, GLI2, PIK3R2, PRAF2, IGF2BP3, and NUPR1 were up-regulated, and ADAMTS8 was down-regulated in the samples of advanced IPF. Only CTSB showed significant differences in expression based on Western blotting (n = 12; p < 0.001) and immunohistochemistry between the three groups of the independent IPF cohort. In the retrospective validation cohort (n = 78), serum CTSB levels were higher in the progressive group (n = 25) than in the control (n = 29, mean 7.37 ng/mL vs. 2.70 ng/mL, p < 0.001) and nonprogressive groups (n = 24, mean 7.37 ng/mL vs. 2.56 ng/mL, p < 0.001). In the prospective validation cohort (n = 129), serum CTSB levels were higher in the progressive group than in the nonprogressive group (mean 8.30 ng/mL vs. 3.00 ng/mL, p < 0.001). After adjusting for baseline FVC, we found that CTSB was independently associated with IPF progression (adjusted OR = 2.61, p < 0.001). Serum CTSB levels significantly predicted IPF progression (AUC = 0.944, p < 0.001). Serum CTSB level significantly distinguished the progression of IPF from the non-progression of IPF or healthy control.

The Significance of Cathepsin B in Mediating Radiation Resistance in Colon Carcinoma Cell Line (Caco-2)

Cathepsins (Caths) are lysosomal proteases that participate in various physiological and pathological processes. Accumulating evidence suggests that caths play a multifaceted role in cancer progression and radiotherapy resistance responses. Their proteolytic activity influences the tumor's response to radiation by affecting oxygenation, nutrient availability, and immune cell infiltration within the tumor microenvironment. Cathepsin-mediated DNA repair mechanisms can promote radioresistance in cancer cells, limiting the efficacy of radiotherapy. Additionally, caths have been associated with the activation of prosurvival signaling pathways, such as PI3K/Akt and NF-κB, which can confer resistance to radiation-induced cell death. However, the effectiveness of radiotherapy can be limited by intrinsic or acquired resistance mechanisms in cancer cells. In this study, the regulation and expression of cathepsin B (cath B) in the colon carcinoma cell line (caco-2) before and after exposure to radiation were investigated. Cells were exposed to escalating ionizing radiation doses (2 Gy, 4 Gy, 6 Gy, 8 Gy, and 10 Gy). Analysis of protein expression, in vitro labeling using activity-based probes DCG04, and cath B pull-down revealed a radiation-induced up-regulation of cathepsin B in a dose-independent manner. Proteolytic inhibition of cathepsin B by cathepsin B specific inhibitor CA074 has increased the cytotoxic effect and cell death due to ionizing irradiation treatment in caco-2 cells. Similar results were also obtained after cathepsin B knockout by CRISPR CAS9. Furthermore, upon exposure to radiation treatment, the inhibition of cath B led to a significant upregulation in the expression of the proapoptotic protein BAX, while it induced a significant reduction in the expression of the antiapoptotic protein BCL-2. These results showed that cathepsin B could contribute to ionizing radiation resistance, and the abolishment of cathepsin B, either by inhibition of its proteolytic activity or expression, has increased the caco-2 cells susceptibility to ionizing irradiation.

Cathepsin-facilitated invasion of BMI1-high hepatocellular carcinoma cells drives bile duct tumor thrombi formation

Bile duct tumor thrombosis (BDTT) is a complication mostly observed in patients with advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), causing jaundice and associated with poor clinical outcome. However, its underlying molecular mechanism is unclear. Here, we develop spontaneous preclinical HCC animal models with BDTT to identify the role of BMI1 expressing tumor initiating cells (BMI1high TICs) in inducing BDTT. BMI1 overexpression transforms liver progenitor cells into BMI1high TICs, which possess strong tumorigenicity and increased trans-intrahepatic biliary epithelial migration ability by secreting lysosomal cathepsin B (CTSB). Orthotopic liver implantation of BMI1high TICs into mice generates tumors and triggers CTSB mediated bile duct invasion to form tumor thrombus, while CTSB inhibitor treatment prohibits BDTT and extends mouse survival. Clinically, the elevated serum CTSB level determines BDTT incidence in HCC patients. Mechanistically, BMI1 epigenetically up-regulates CTSB secretion in TICs by repressing miR-218-1-3p expression. These findings identify a potential diagnostic and therapeutic target for HCC patients with BDTT.