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Holland KL, Plutkis SE, Daugird TA, Sau A, Grimm JB, English BP, Zheng Q, Dave S, Rahman F, Xie L, Dong P, Tkachuk AN, Brown TA, Singer RH, Liu Z, Galbraith CG, Musser SM, Legant WR, Lavis LD. A series of spontaneously blinking dyes for super-resolution microscopy. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.23.581625. [PMID: 38766149 PMCID: PMC11101128 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.23.581625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2024]
Abstract
Spontaneously blinking fluorophores permit the detection and localization of individual molecules without reducing buffers or caging groups, thus simplifying single-molecule localization microscopy (SMLM). The intrinsic blinking properties of such dyes are dictated by molecular structure and modulated by environment, which can limit utility. We report a series of tuned spontaneously blinking dyes with duty cycles that span two orders of magnitude, allowing facile SMLM in cells and dense biomolecular structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie L. Holland
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Sarah E. Plutkis
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Timothy A. Daugird
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Medical School, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Abhishek Sau
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Texas A&M University, School of Medicine, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Jonathan B. Grimm
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Brian P. English
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Qinsi Zheng
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Sandeep Dave
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Texas A&M University, School of Medicine, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Fariha Rahman
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Liangqi Xie
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Peng Dong
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Ariana N. Tkachuk
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Timothy A. Brown
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Robert H. Singer
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
| | - Zhe Liu
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
| | - Catherine G. Galbraith
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Knight Cancer Institute, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Siegfried M. Musser
- Department of Cell Biology and Genetics, Texas A&M University, School of Medicine, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Wesley R. Legant
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill Medical School, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina-Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
| | - Luke D. Lavis
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, VA, USA
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2
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Nie Y, Fu G, Leng Y. Nuclear Delivery of Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems by Nuclear Localization Signals. Cells 2023; 12:1637. [PMID: 37371107 DOI: 10.3390/cells12121637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanomedicine 2.0 refers to the next generation of nanotechnology-based medical therapies and diagnostic tools. This field focuses on the development of more sophisticated and precise nanoparticles (NPs) for targeted drug delivery, imaging, and sensing. It has been established that the nuclear delivery of NP-loaded drugs can increase their therapeutic efficacy. To effectively direct the NPs to the nucleus, the attachment of nuclear localization signals (NLSs) to NPs has been employed in many applications. In this review, we will provide an overview of the structure of nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) and the classic nuclear import mechanism. Additionally, we will explore various nanoparticles, including their synthesis, functionalization, drug loading and release mechanisms, nuclear targeting strategies, and potential applications. Finally, we will highlight the challenges associated with developing nucleus-targeted nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems (NDDSs) and provide insights into the future of NDDSs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhan Nie
- Innovation and Integration Center of New Laser Technology, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China
| | - Guo Fu
- Innovation and Integration Center of New Laser Technology, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China
| | - Yuxin Leng
- State Key Laboratory of High Field Laser Physics and CAS Center for Excellence in Ultra-Intense Laser Science, Shanghai Institute of Optics and Fine Mechanics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 201800, China
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3
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Laktionov MY, Shavykin OV, Leermakers FAM, Zhulina EB, Borisov OV. Colloidal particles interacting with a polymer brush: a self-consistent field theory. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:8463-8476. [PMID: 35343984 DOI: 10.1039/d1cp04834a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The interaction of colloidal particles with a planar polymer brush immersed in a solvent of variable thermodynamic quality is studied by a numerical self-consistent field method combined with analytical mean-field theory. The effect of embedded particle on the distribution of polymer density in the brush is analyzed and the particle insertion free energy profiles are calculated for variable size and shape of the particles and sets of polymer-particle and polymer-solvent interaction parameters. In particular, both cases of repulsive and attractive interactions between particles and brush-forming chains are considered. It is demonstrated that for large particles the insertion free energy is dominated by repulsive (osmotic) contribution and is approximately proportional to the particle volume in accordance with earlier theoretical predictions [Halperin et al., Macromolecules, 2011, 44, 3622]. For the particles of smaller size or/and large shape asymmetry the adsorption or depletion of a polymer from the particle surface essentially contributes to the insertion free energy balance. As a result, depending on the set of polymer-solvent and polymer-particle interaction parameters and brush grafting density the insertion free energy profile may exhibit complex patterns, i.e., from a pure repulsive effective potential barrier to an attractive well. The results of our study allow for predicting equilibrium partitioning and controlling diffusive transport of (bio)nanocolloids across (bio)polymer brushes of arbitrary geometry including polymer-modified membranes or nanopores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikhail Y Laktionov
- St.Petersburg National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics, 197101 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Oleg V Shavykin
- St.Petersburg National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics, 197101 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Frans A M Leermakers
- Physical Chemistry and Soft Matter, Wageningen University, 6703 NB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ekaterina B Zhulina
- St.Petersburg National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics, 197101 St. Petersburg, Russia.,Institute of Macromolecular Compounds of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 199004 St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Oleg V Borisov
- St.Petersburg National Research University of Information Technologies, Mechanics and Optics, 197101 St. Petersburg, Russia.,Institute of Macromolecular Compounds of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 199004 St. Petersburg, Russia.,CNRS, Universite de Pau et des Pays de l'Adour UMR 5254, Institut des Sciences Analytiques et de Physico-Chimie pour l'Environnement et les Materiaux, Pau, France.
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Function of the Nuclear Transport Machinery in Maintaining the Distinctive Compositions of the Nucleus and Cytoplasm. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23052578. [PMID: 35269721 PMCID: PMC8910404 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23052578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2022] [Revised: 02/13/2022] [Accepted: 02/23/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Although the separation of transcription and translation, mediated by the nuclear envelope, is the defining characteristic of Eukaryotes, the barrier between the nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments needs to be semipermeable to enable material to be moved between them. Moreover, each compartment needs to have a distinctive complement of macromolecules to mediate specific functions and so movement between them needs to be controlled. This is achieved through the selective active transport of macromolecules through the nuclear pores that stud the nuclear envelope, and which serve as a conduit between these compartments. Nuclear pores are huge cylindrical macromolecular assemblies and are constructed from the order of 30 different proteins called nucleoporins. Nuclear pores have a central transport channel that is filled with a dense network of natively unfolded portions of many different nuclear pore proteins (nucleoporins or nups). This network generates a barrier that impedes, but does not entirely prevent, the diffusion of many macromolecules through the pores. The rapid movement of a range of proteins and RNAs through the pores is mediated by a range of transport factors that bind their cargo in one compartment and release it in the other. However, although as their size increases the diffusion of macromolecules through nuclear pores is progressively impaired, additional mechanisms, including the binding of some macromolecules to immobile components of each compartment and also the active removal of macromolecules from the inappropriate compartment, are needed to fully maintain the distinctive compositions of each compartment.
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Chowdhury R, Sau A, Musser SM. Super-resolved 3D tracking of cargo transport through nuclear pore complexes. Nat Cell Biol 2022; 24:112-122. [PMID: 35013558 PMCID: PMC8820391 DOI: 10.1038/s41556-021-00815-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) embedded within the nuclear envelope (NE) mediate rapid, selective, and bidirectional traffic between the cytoplasm and the nucleoplasm. Deciphering the mechanism and dynamics of this process is challenged by the need for high spatial and temporal precision. We report here a multi-color imaging approach that enables direct 3D visualization of cargo transport trajectories relative to a super-resolved octagonal double-ring structure of the NPC scaffold. The success of this approach is enabled by the high positional stability of NPCs within permeabilized cells, as verified by a combined experimental and simulation analysis. Hourglass-shaped translocation conduits for two cargo complexes representing different nuclear transport receptor (NTR) pathways indicates rapid migration through the permeability barrier on or near the NPC scaffold. Binding sites for cargo complexes extend over 100 nm from the pore openings, consistent with a wide distribution of the FG-polypeptides that bind NTRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajdeep Chowdhury
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University, College of Medicine, The Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Abhishek Sau
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University, College of Medicine, The Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX, USA
| | - Siegfried M Musser
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, Texas A&M University, College of Medicine, The Texas A&M Health Science Center, College Station, TX, USA.
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Xiang L, Chen K, Xu K. Single Molecules Are Your Quanta: A Bottom-Up Approach toward Multidimensional Super-resolution Microscopy. ACS NANO 2021; 15:12483-12496. [PMID: 34304562 PMCID: PMC8789943 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c04708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
The rise of single-molecule localization microscopy (SMLM) and related super-resolution methods over the past 15 years has revolutionized how we study biological and materials systems. In this Perspective, we reflect on the underlying philosophy of how diffraction-unlimited pictures containing rich spatial and functional information may gradually emerge through the local accumulation of single-molecule measurements. Starting with the basic concepts, we analyze the uniqueness of and opportunities in building up the final picture one molecule at a time. After brief introductions to the more established multicolor and three-dimensional measurements, we highlight emerging efforts to extend SMLM to new dimensions and functionalities as fluorescence polarization, emission spectra, and molecular motions, and discuss rising opportunities and future directions. With single molecules as our quanta, the bottom-up accumulation approach provides a powerful conduit for multidimensional microscopy at the nanoscale.
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Shepherd JW, Payne-Dwyer AL, Lee JE, Syeda A, Leake MC. Combining single-molecule super-resolved localization microscopy with fluorescence polarization imaging to study cellular processes. JPHYS PHOTONICS 2021. [DOI: 10.1088/2515-7647/ac015d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Super-resolution microscopy has catalyzed valuable insights into the sub-cellular, mechanistic details of many different biological processes across a wide range of cell types. Fluorescence polarization spectroscopy tools have also enabled important insights into cellular processes through identifying orientational changes of biological molecules typically at an ensemble level. Here, we combine these two biophysical methodologies in a single home-made instrument to enable the simultaneous detection of orthogonal fluorescence polarization signals from single fluorescent protein molecules used as common reporters on the localization of proteins in cellular processes. These enable measurement of spatial location to a super-resolved precision better than the diffraction-limited optical resolution, as well as estimation of molecular stoichiometry based on the brightness of individual fluorophores. In this innovation we have adapted a millisecond timescale microscope used for single-molecule detection to enable splitting of fluorescence polarization emissions into two separate imaging channels for s- and p-polarization signals, which are imaged onto separate halves of the same high sensitivity back-illuminated CMOS camera detector. We applied this fluorescence polarization super-resolved imaging modality to a range of test fluorescent samples relevant to the study of biological processes, including purified monomeric green fluorescent protein, single combed DNA molecules, and protein assemblies and complexes from live Escherichia coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells. Our findings are qualitative but demonstrate promise in showing how fluorescence polarization and super-resolved localization microscopy can be combined on the same sample to enable simultaneous measurements of polarization and stoichiometry of tracked molecular complexes, as well as the translational diffusion coefficient.
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Celetti G, Paci G, Caria J, VanDelinder V, Bachand G, Lemke EA. The liquid state of FG-nucleoporins mimics permeability barrier properties of nuclear pore complexes. J Cell Biol 2020; 219:e201907157. [PMID: 31723007 PMCID: PMC7039189 DOI: 10.1083/jcb.201907157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2019] [Revised: 09/21/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) regulate all cargo traffic across the nuclear envelope. The transport conduit of NPCs is highly enriched in disordered phenylalanine/glycine-rich nucleoporins (FG-Nups), which form a permeability barrier of still elusive and highly debated molecular structure. Here we present a microfluidic device that triggered liquid-to-liquid phase separation of FG-Nups, which yielded droplets that showed typical properties of a liquid state. On the microfluidic chip, droplets were perfused with different transport-competent or -incompetent cargo complexes, and then the permeability barrier properties of the droplets were optically interrogated. We show that the liquid state mimics permeability barrier properties of the physiological nuclear transport pathway in intact NPCs in cells: that is, inert cargoes ranging from small proteins to large capsids were excluded from liquid FG-Nup droplets, but functional import complexes underwent facilitated import into droplets. Collectively, these data provide an experimental model of how NPCs can facilitate fast passage of cargoes across an order of magnitude in cargo size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Celetti
- Biocentre, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit and Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Giulia Paci
- Biocentre, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit and Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Joana Caria
- Biocentre, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit and Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Virginia VanDelinder
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM
| | - George Bachand
- Center for Integrated Nanotechnologies, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM
| | - Edward A. Lemke
- Biocentre, Johannes Gutenberg-University Mainz, Mainz, Germany
- Institute of Molecular Biology, Mainz, Germany
- Structural and Computational Biology Unit and Cell Biology and Biophysics Unit, European Molecular Biology Laboratory, Heidelberg, Germany
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Hamsanathan S, Musser SM. The Tat protein transport system: intriguing questions and conundrums. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2019; 365:5000164. [PMID: 29897510 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fny123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The Tat machinery catalyzes the transport of folded proteins across the cytoplasmic membrane in bacteria and the thylakoid membrane in plants. Transport occurs only in the presence of an electric field (Δψ) and/or a pH (ΔpH) gradient, and thus, Tat transport is considered to be dependent on the proton motive force (pmf). This presents a fundamental and major challenge, namely, that the Tat system catalyzes the movement of large folded protein cargos across a membrane without collapse of ion gradients. Current models argue that the active translocon assembles de novo for each cargo transported, thus providing an effective gating mechanism to minimize ion leakage. A limited structural understanding of the intermediates occurring during transport and the role of the pmf in stabilizing and/or driving this process have hindered the development of more detailed models. A fundamental question that remains unanswered is whether the pmf is actually 'consumed', providing an energetic driving force for transport, or alternatively, whether its presence is instead necessary to provide the appropriate environment for the translocon components to become active. Including addressing this issue in greater detail, we explore a series of additional questions that challenge current models, and, hopefully, motivate future work.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shruthi Hamsanathan
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, College of Medicine, The Texas A&M Health Science Center, Texas A&M University, 1114 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA
| | - Siegfried M Musser
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Medicine, College of Medicine, The Texas A&M Health Science Center, Texas A&M University, 1114 TAMU, College Station, TX 77843, USA
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Zilman A. Aggregation, Phase Separation and Spatial Morphologies of the Assemblies of FG Nucleoporins. J Mol Biol 2018; 430:4730-4740. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2018.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/09/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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11
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Fisher PDE, Shen Q, Akpinar B, Davis LK, Chung KKH, Baddeley D, Šarić A, Melia TJ, Hoogenboom BW, Lin C, Lusk CP. A Programmable DNA Origami Platform for Organizing Intrinsically Disordered Nucleoporins within Nanopore Confinement. ACS NANO 2018; 12:1508-1518. [PMID: 29350911 PMCID: PMC5834394 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.7b08044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) form gateways that control molecular exchange between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. They impose a diffusion barrier to macromolecules and enable the selective transport of nuclear transport receptors with bound cargo. The underlying mechanisms that establish these permeability properties remain to be fully elucidated but require unstructured nuclear pore proteins rich in Phe-Gly (FG)-repeat domains of different types, such as FxFG and GLFG. While physical modeling and in vitro approaches have provided a framework for explaining how the FG network contributes to the barrier and transport properties of the NPC, it remains unknown whether the number and/or the spatial positioning of different FG-domains along a cylindrical, ∼40 nm diameter transport channel contributes to their collective properties and function. To begin to answer these questions, we have used DNA origami to build a cylinder that mimics the dimensions of the central transport channel and can house a specified number of FG-domains at specific positions with easily tunable design parameters, such as grafting density and topology. We find the overall morphology of the FG-domain assemblies to be dependent on their chemical composition, determined by the type and density of FG-repeat, and on their architectural confinement provided by the DNA cylinder, largely consistent with here presented molecular dynamics simulations based on a coarse-grained polymer model. In addition, high-speed atomic force microscopy reveals local and reversible FG-domain condensation that transiently occludes the lumen of the DNA central channel mimics, suggestive of how the NPC might establish its permeability properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick D. Ellis Fisher
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
- Nanobiology Institute, Yale University, West Haven, Connecticut 06516, USA
| | - Qi Shen
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
- Nanobiology Institute, Yale University, West Haven, Connecticut 06516, USA
| | - Bernice Akpinar
- Department of Chemistry, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17–19 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0AH, UK
| | - Luke K. Davis
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17–19 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0AH, UK
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Institute for the Physics of Living Systems, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Kenny Kwok Hin Chung
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
- Nanobiology Institute, Yale University, West Haven, Connecticut 06516, USA
| | - David Baddeley
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
- Nanobiology Institute, Yale University, West Haven, Connecticut 06516, USA
| | - Anđela Šarić
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Institute for the Physics of Living Systems, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Thomas J. Melia
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
| | - Bart W. Hoogenboom
- London Centre for Nanotechnology, University College London, 17–19 Gordon Street, London WC1H 0AH, UK
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
- Institute for the Physics of Living Systems, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Chenxiang Lin
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
- Nanobiology Institute, Yale University, West Haven, Connecticut 06516, USA
- Correspondence to: Chenxiang Lin: or C. Patrick Lusk:
| | - C. Patrick Lusk
- Department of Cell Biology, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut 06520, USA
- Correspondence to: Chenxiang Lin: or C. Patrick Lusk:
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