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Banerjee T, Sarkar A, Ali SZ, Bhowmik R, Karmakar S, Halder AK, Ghosh N. Bioprotective Role of Phytocompounds Against the Pathogenesis of Non-alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease to Non-alcoholic Steatohepatitis: Unravelling Underlying Molecular Mechanisms. PLANTA MEDICA 2024. [PMID: 38458248 DOI: 10.1055/a-2277-4805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/10/2024]
Abstract
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), with a global prevalence of 25%, continues to escalate, creating noteworthy concerns towards the global health burden. NAFLD causes triglycerides and free fatty acids to build up in the liver. The excessive fat build-up causes inflammation and damages the healthy hepatocytes, leading to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). Dietary habits, obesity, insulin resistance, type 2 diabetes, and dyslipidemia influence NAFLD progression. The disease burden is complicated due to the paucity of therapeutic interventions. Obeticholic acid is the only approved therapeutic agent for NAFLD. With more scientific enterprise being directed towards the understanding of the underlying mechanisms of NAFLD, novel targets like lipid synthase, farnesoid X receptor signalling, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors associated with inflammatory signalling, and hepatocellular injury have played a crucial role in the progression of NAFLD to NASH. Phytocompounds have shown promising results in modulating hepatic lipid metabolism and de novo lipogenesis, suggesting their possible role in managing NAFLD. This review discusses the ameliorative role of different classes of phytochemicals with molecular mechanisms in different cell lines and established animal models. These compounds may lead to the development of novel therapeutic strategies for NAFLD progression to NASH. This review also deliberates on phytomolecules undergoing clinical trials for effective management of NAFLD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanmoy Banerjee
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, West Bengal, Kolkata, India
| | - Arnab Sarkar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, West Bengal, Kolkata, India
| | - Sk Zeeshan Ali
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, West Bengal, Kolkata, India
| | - Rudranil Bhowmik
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, West Bengal, Kolkata, India
| | - Sanmoy Karmakar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, West Bengal, Kolkata, India
| | - Amit Kumar Halder
- Dr. B. C. Roy College of Pharmacy and Allied Health Sciences, Dr. Meghnad Saha Sarani, Bidhannagar, Durgapur, West Bengal, India
| | - Nilanjan Ghosh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, West Bengal, Kolkata, India
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Atteia HH, AlFaris NA, Alshammari GM, Alamri E, Ahmed SF, Albalwi R, Abdel-Sattar SAL. The Hepatic Antisteatosis Effect of Xanthohumol in High-Fat Diet-Fed Rats Entails Activation of AMPK as a Possible Protective Mechanism. Foods 2023; 12:4214. [PMID: 38231665 DOI: 10.3390/foods12234214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Revised: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 11/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
Obesity is the leading cause of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease by provoking hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, and inflammation. Low activity of AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is linked to obesity, liver injury, and NAFLD. This study involves examining if the anti-steatosis effect of Xanthohumol (XH) in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed rats involves the regulation of AMPK. Adult male rats were divided into five groups (n = 8 each) as control (3.85 kcal/g); XH (control diet + 20 mg/kg), HFD (4.73 kcl/g), HFD + XH (20 mg/kg), and HFD + XH (30 mg/kg) + compound c (cc) (0.2 mg/kg). All treatments were conducted for 12 weeks. Treatment with XH attenuated the gain in body weight, fat pads, fasting glucose, and insulin in HFD rats. It also lowered serum leptin and free fatty acids (FFAs) and improved glucose and insulin tolerances in these rats. It also attenuated the increase in serum livers of liver marker enzymes and reduced serum and hepatic levels of triglycerides (TGs), cholesterol (CHOL), FFAs, as well as serum levels of low-density lipoproteins cholesterol (LDL-c) oxidized LDL-c. XH also reduced hepatic levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), nuclear accumulation of NF-κB, and the levels of tumor necrosis-factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) while stimulating the nuclear levels of Nrf2 and total levels of glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) in these HFD-fed rats. At the molecular levels, XH increased hepatic mRNA expression and phosphorylation of AMPK (Thr72) and reduced the expression of lipogenic genes SREBP1c and ACC-1. In concomitance, XH reduced hepatic liver droplet accumulation, reduced the number of apoptotic nuclei, and improved the structures of nuclei, mitochondria, and rough endoplasmic reticulum. Co-treatment with CC, an AMPK inhibitor, completely abolished all these effects of XH. In conclusion, XH attenuates obesity and HFD-mediated hepatic steatosis by activating hepatic AMPK.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hebatallah Husseini Atteia
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Tabuk, Tabuk P.O. Box 47512, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nora A AlFaris
- Department of Physical Sports Sciences, College of Sports Sciences & Physical Activity, Princess Nourah bint Abdulrahman University, Riyadh P.O. Box 84428, Saudi Arabia
| | - Ghedeir M Alshammari
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, College of Food and Agricultural Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Eman Alamri
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Tabuk, Tabuk P.O. Box 47512, Saudi Arabia
| | - Salwa Fares Ahmed
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Tabuk, Tabuk P.O. Box 47512, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Histology, Faculty of Medicine, Assiut University, Assiut 71515, Egypt
| | - Renad Albalwi
- Department of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Tabuk, Tabuk P.O. Box 47512, Saudi Arabia
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Newman NK, Zhang Y, Padiadpu J, Miranda CL, Magana AA, Wong CP, Hioki KA, Pederson JW, Li Z, Gurung M, Bruce AM, Brown K, Bobe G, Sharpton TJ, Shulzhenko N, Maier CS, Stevens JF, Gombart AF, Morgun A. Reducing gut microbiome-driven adipose tissue inflammation alleviates metabolic syndrome. MICROBIOME 2023; 11:208. [PMID: 37735685 PMCID: PMC10512512 DOI: 10.1186/s40168-023-01637-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The gut microbiota contributes to macrophage-mediated inflammation in adipose tissue with consumption of an obesogenic diet, thus driving the development of metabolic syndrome. There is a need to identify and develop interventions that abrogate this condition. The hops-derived prenylated flavonoid xanthohumol (XN) and its semi-synthetic derivative tetrahydroxanthohumol (TXN) attenuate high-fat diet-induced obesity, hepatosteatosis, and metabolic syndrome in C57Bl/6J mice. This coincides with a decrease in pro-inflammatory gene expression in the gut and adipose tissue, together with alterations in the gut microbiota and bile acid composition. RESULTS In this study, we integrated and interrogated multi-omics data from different organs with fecal 16S rRNA sequences and systemic metabolic phenotypic data using a Transkingdom Network Analysis. By incorporating cell type information from single-cell RNA-seq data, we discovered TXN attenuates macrophage inflammatory processes in adipose tissue. TXN treatment also reduced levels of inflammation-inducing microbes, such as Oscillibacter valericigenes, that lead to adverse metabolic phenotypes. Furthermore, in vitro validation in macrophage cell lines and in vivo mouse supplementation showed addition of O. valericigenes supernatant induced the expression of metabolic macrophage signature genes that are downregulated by TXN in vivo. CONCLUSIONS Our findings establish an important mechanism by which TXN mitigates adverse phenotypic outcomes of diet-induced obesity and metabolic syndrome. TXN primarily reduces the abundance of pro-inflammatory gut microbes that can otherwise promote macrophage-associated inflammation in white adipose tissue. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- N K Newman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - Y Zhang
- School of Biological and Population Health Sciences, Nutrition Program, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
- Present address: Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - J Padiadpu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - C L Miranda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - A A Magana
- Department of Chemistry, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - C P Wong
- School of Biological and Population Health Sciences, Nutrition Program, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - K A Hioki
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
- Present address: UMASS, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - J W Pederson
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - Z Li
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - M Gurung
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
- Present address: Children Nutrition Center, USDA, Little Rock, AR, USA
| | - A M Bruce
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - K Brown
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
- Chemical, Biological & Environmental Engineering, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - G Bobe
- Department of Animal Sciences, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - T J Sharpton
- Department of Microbiology, Department of Statistics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - N Shulzhenko
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Carlson College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA.
| | - C S Maier
- Department of Chemistry, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - J F Stevens
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA
| | - A F Gombart
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Linus Pauling Institute, Corvallis, OR, USA.
| | - A Morgun
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, USA.
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Lee SM, Muratalla J, Sierra-Cruz M, Cordoba-Chacon J. Role of hepatic peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease. J Endocrinol 2023; 257:e220155. [PMID: 36688873 PMCID: PMC10048618 DOI: 10.1530/joe-22-0155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) belongs to a family of nuclear receptors that could serve as lipid sensors. PPARγ is the target of a group of insulin sensitizers called thiazolidinediones (TZDs) which regulate the expression of genes involved in glucose and lipid metabolism as well as adipokines that regulate metabolic function in other tissues. Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has a high prevalence worldwide and is even higher in patients with obesity and insulin resistance. TZD-mediated activation of PPARγ could serve as a good treatment for NAFLD because TZDs have shown anti-fibrogenic and anti-inflammatory effectsin vitro and increase insulin sensitivity in peripheral tissues which improves liver pathology. However, mechanistic studies in mouse models suggest that the activation of PPARγ in hepatocytes might reduce or limit the therapeutic potential of TZD against NAFLD. In this review, we briefly describe the short history of PPAR isoforms, the relevance of their expression in different tissues, as well as the pathogenesis and potential therapeutics for NAFLD. We also discuss some evidence derived from mouse models that could be useful for endocrinologists to assess tissue-specific roles of PPARs, complement reverse endocrinology approaches, and understand the direct role that PPARγ has in hepatocytes and non-parenchymal cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel M. Lee
- Department of Medicine. Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism. University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago. IL
| | - Jose Muratalla
- Department of Medicine. Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism. University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago. IL
| | - Marta Sierra-Cruz
- Department of Medicine. Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism. University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago. IL
| | - Jose Cordoba-Chacon
- Department of Medicine. Division of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism. University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago. IL
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Synthesis of Human Phase I and Phase II Metabolites of Hop (Humulus lupulus) Prenylated Flavonoids. Metabolites 2022; 12:metabo12040345. [PMID: 35448532 PMCID: PMC9030851 DOI: 10.3390/metabo12040345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2022] [Revised: 04/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hop prenylated flavonoids have been investigated for their in vivo activities due to their broad spectrum of positive health effects. Previous studies on the metabolism of xanthohumol using untargeted methods have found that it is first degraded into 8-prenylnaringenin and 6-prenylnaringenin, by spontaneous cyclisation into isoxanthohumol, and subsequently demethylated by gut bacteria. Further combinations of metabolism by hydroxylation, sulfation, and glucuronidation result in an unknown number of isomers. Most investigations involving the analysis of prenylated flavonoids used surrogate or untargeted approaches in metabolite identification, which is prone to errors in absolute identification. Here, we present a synthetic approach to obtaining reference standards for the identification of human xanthohumol metabolites. The synthesised metabolites were subsequently analysed by qTOF LC-MS/MS, and some were matched to a human blood sample obtained after the consumption of 43 mg of micellarised xanthohumol. Additionally, isomers of the reference standards were identified due to their having the same mass fragmentation pattern and different retention times. Overall, the methods unequivocally identified the metabolites of xanthohumol that are present in the blood circulatory system. Lastly, in vitro bioactive testing should be applied using metabolites and not original compounds, as free compounds are scarcely found in human blood.
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Zugravu CA, Bohiltea RE, Salmen T, Pogurschi E, Otelea MR. Antioxidants in Hops: Bioavailability, Health Effects and Perspectives for New Products. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11020241. [PMID: 35204124 PMCID: PMC8868281 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11020241] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Hop plant (Humulus lupulus L.) has been used by humans for ages, presumably first as a herbal remedy, then in the manufacturing of different products, from which beer is the most largely consumed. Female hops cones have different useful chemical compounds, an important class being antioxidants, mainly polyphenols. This narrative review describes the main antioxidants in hops, their bioavailability and biological effects, and the results obtained by now in the primary and secondary prevention of several non-communicable diseases, such as the metabolic syndrome related diseases and oncology. This article presents in vitro and in vivo data in order to better understand what was accomplished in terms of knowledge and practice, and what needs to be clarified by additional studies, mainly regarding xantohumol and its derivates, as well as regarding the bitter acids of hops. The multiple protective effects found by different studies are hindered up to now by the low bioavailability of some of the main antioxidants in hops. However, there are new promising products with important health effects and perspectives of use as food supplements, in a market where consumers increasingly search for products originating directly from plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corina-Aurelia Zugravu
- Department of Hygiene and Ecology, “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050463 Bucharest, Romania; or
| | - Roxana-Elena Bohiltea
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy Bucharest, 020021 Bucharest, Romania; or
| | - Teodor Salmen
- Department of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, “Prof. Dr. N.C.Paulescu” National Institute of Diabetes, 030167 Bucharest, Romania
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +40-743526731
| | - Elena Pogurschi
- Faculty of Animal Productions Engineering and Management, University of Agronomic Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Bucharest, 57 Marasti Blvd, 011464 Bucharest, Romania; or
| | - Marina Ruxandra Otelea
- Clinical Department 5, “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050463 Bucharest, Romania; or
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Ning Y, Gong Y, Zheng T, Xie Y, Yuan S, Ding W. Lingguizhugan Decoction Targets Intestinal Microbiota and Metabolites to Reduce Insulin Resistance in High-Fat Diet Rats. Diabetes Metab Syndr Obes 2022; 15:2427-2442. [PMID: 35971521 PMCID: PMC9375570 DOI: 10.2147/dmso.s370492] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The increasing incidence of obesity and its complications has become a global public health problem. Lingguizhugan decoction (LGZGD) is a representative compound of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for metabolic diseases, such as nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, but its role in insulin resistance (IR) treatment is still less known. This study aims to evaluate the therapeutic properties of LGZGD on obesity-induced IR and explore the potential mechanism of LGZGD on gut microbiota and its metabolites in the treatment of IR. METHODS In this study, we induced an IR model in the form of high-fat diet (HFD) rats gavaged with LGZGD (1.64 g/kg BW) for three weeks. The IR status was measured by biochemical assays and oral glucose tolerance tests. The degrees of damage to liver function and the intestinal barrier were observed by hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining and immunohistochemistry. Alterations in intestinal microbiota and metabolites were assessed by 16S rRNA and an untargeted metabolomics platform. RESULTS Our results showed that after LGZGD treatment, the body weight, plasma insulin concentration and blood lipids were significantly decreased, and glucose tolerance and hepatic steatosis were ameliorated. In addition, small intestinal villi were restored, and the expression of Occludin was upregulated. The relative abundance of Akkermansia, Faecalibacterium and Phascolarctobacterium in the HFD-LGZG group was upregulated. Obesity-related metabolic pathways, such as bile secretion, biosynthesis of amino acids, phenylalanine metabolism, serotonergic synapse, protein digestion and absorption, taurine and hypotaurine metabolism, and primary bile acid biosynthesis, were changed. After LGZGD intervention, metabolites developed toward the healthy control group. In addition, the expression of bile acid metabolism related genes was also regulated in IR rats. CONCLUSION We showed that LGZGD relieved IR, possibly by regulating the composition of the fecal microbiota and its metabolites. The above studies provide a basis for further study of LGZGD in the treatment of IR and its clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Ning
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, People’s Republic of China
| | - Yanju Gong
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, People’s Republic of China
| | - Tianyan Zheng
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, People’s Republic of China
| | - Ya Xie
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, People’s Republic of China
| | - Shiqing Yuan
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, People’s Republic of China
| | - Weijun Ding
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, People’s Republic of China
- Correspondence: Weijun Ding; Shiqing Yuan, Department of Fundamental Medicine, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, 1166 Liutai Road, Chengdu, 611137, People’s Republic of China, Tel + 86-28-61800219, Fax + 86-28-61800225, Email ;
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Paraiso IL, Mattio LM, Alcázar Magaña A, Choi J, Plagmann LS, Redick MA, Miranda CL, Maier CS, Dallavalle S, Kioussi C, Blakemore PR, Stevens JF. Xanthohumol Pyrazole Derivative Improves Diet-Induced Obesity and Induces Energy Expenditure in High-Fat Diet-Fed Mice. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:1782-1793. [PMID: 34927010 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The energy intake exceeding energy expenditure (EE) results in a positive energy balance, leading to storage of excess energy and weight gain. Here, we investigate the potential of a newly synthesized compound as an inducer of EE for the management of diet-induced obesity and insulin resistance. Xanthohumol (XN), a prenylated flavonoid from hops, was used as a precursor for the synthesis of a pyrazole derivative tested for its properties on high-fat diet (HFD)-induced metabolic impairments. In a comparative study with XN, we report that 4-(5-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-1-methyl-1H-pyrazol-3-yl)-5-methoxy-2-(3-methylbut-2-en-1-yl)benzene-1,3-diol (XP) uncouples oxidative phosphorylation in C2C12 cells. In HFD-fed mice, XP improved glucose tolerance and decreased weight gain by increasing EE and locomotor activity. Using an untargeted metabolomics approach, we assessed the effects of treatment on metabolites and their corresponding biochemical pathways. We found that XP and XN reduced purine metabolites and other energy metabolites in the plasma of HFD-fed mice. The induction of locomotor activity was associated with an increase in inosine monophosphate in the cortex of XP-treated mice. Together, these results suggest that XP, better than XN, affects mitochondrial respiration and cellular energy metabolism to prevent obesity in HFD-fed mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ines L Paraiso
- Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Luce M Mattio
- Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States.,Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), University of Milan, Via Celoria 2, Milan 20133, Italy
| | - Armando Alcázar Magaña
- Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Jaewoo Choi
- Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Layhna S Plagmann
- Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Margaret A Redick
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Cristobal L Miranda
- Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Claudia S Maier
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Sabrina Dallavalle
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Sciences (DeFENS), University of Milan, Via Celoria 2, Milan 20133, Italy
| | - Chrissa Kioussi
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Paul R Blakemore
- Department of Chemistry, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
| | - Jan F Stevens
- Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States.,Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon 97331, United States
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