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Identifying Aflatoxin Exposure Risk from Supplemental Feeding of Deer. J Wildl Dis 2022; 58:384-388. [PMID: 35090029 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-21-00052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2021] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxins, common contaminants of crops and feed, are a health risk to wild and domestic animals. Past research found aflatoxins in feed and feeders provided for wild herbivores valued for recreational hunting (hereafter: game) species but are consumed by various species. We determined the current extent of aflatoxin contamination in wildlife feed and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) feeders, examined aflatoxin production in corn piles over time, and quantified nontarget wildlife visitation to deer feeders. We sampled feeders (n=107) in Mississippi, US, bagged/bulk feed sources (n=64) in the southeastern US, as well as corn piles exposed to environmental contamination over 10 d (n=20) during May-January of 2019 and 2020. We found aflatoxins (≥5 parts per billion [ppb]) in feeders during summer (4% prevalence, 58±71 ppb mean±SD) and hunting season (October-January, 6%, 60±1 ppb) and in bagged/bulk feed during hunting season (11%, 13±8 ppb). After 8 d, aflatoxins were detected in all summer corn piles at toxic levels (483-3,475 ppb), although none were detected in hunting season piles after day one. Nontarget wildlife identified at feeders included 16 mammalian and 18 avian species. Numerous wildlife species are at risk for aflatoxin exposure due to supplemental feeding of deer, with the primary risk factor in the southeastern US being summertime environmental exposure of feed to aflatoxin-producing fungi.
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Lawson B, Robinson RA, Parmar M, Killick R, Cunningham AA, MacDonald SJ. Aflatoxin and ochratoxin A residues in supplementary foods used for wild birds. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 731:138851. [PMID: 32408204 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.138851] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2020] [Revised: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Provision of supplementary food for garden birds is practiced on a large scale in multiple countries. While this resource has benefits for wild bird populations, concern has been expressed regarding the potential for contamination of foodstuffs by mycotoxins, and the implications this might have for wildlife health. We investigated whether aflatoxin (AF) and ochratoxin A (OA) residues are present in foodstuffs sold for wild bird consumption at point of sale in Great Britain using high pressure liquid chromatography analyses. The hypothesis that production of these mycotoxins occurs in British climatic conditions, or under storage conditions after the point of sale, was tested under experimental conditions but was not proved by our study. While the majority of peanut samples were negative for AF residues, 10% (10/98) of samples at point of sale and 11% (13/119) of those across the storage and climate exposure treatment replicates contained AFB1 that exceeded the maximum permitted limit of 20 μg/kg. No significant difference was found in the detection of either mycotoxin between branded and non-branded products. The clinical significance, if any, of exposure of wild birds to mycotoxins requires further investigation. Nevertheless, the precautionary principle should be adopted and best practice steps to reduce the likelihood of wild bird exposure to mycotoxins are recommended.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Lawson
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London NW1 4RY, UK.
| | - R A Robinson
- British Trust for Ornithology, The Nunnery, Thetford, Norfolk IP24 2PU, UK
| | - M Parmar
- Fera Science Ltd, National Agri-Food Innovation Campus, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, UK
| | - R Killick
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London NW1 4RY, UK
| | - A A Cunningham
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London NW1 4RY, UK
| | - S J MacDonald
- Fera Science Ltd, National Agri-Food Innovation Campus, Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, UK
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Pour SH, Mahmoudi S, Masoumi S, Rezaie S, Barac A, Ranjbaran M, Oliya S, Mehravar F, Sasani E, Noorbakhsh F, Khodavaisy S. Aflatoxin M1 contamination level in Iranian milk and dairy products: a systematic review and meta-analysis. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2020. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2019.2485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Aflatoxin M1 is a derivate of aflatoxin B1 and an important contaminant of milk and dairy products. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted on relevant Persian and English original articles in national and international databases with no time limits until 1 January 2018. In total 605 articles were found among which 70 articles met the inclusion criteria for meta-analysis. The prevalence (95% confidence interval (CI)) and mean concentration (95% CI) of aflatoxin M1 was found to be 64% (53-75%) and 39.7 ng/l (31.9-47.4 ng/l) in raw milk, 95% (89-98%) and 62.3 ng/l (40.6-84 ng/l) in pasteurised milk, 71% (56-84%) and 60.1 ng/l (30.9-89.3 ng/l) in sterilised milk, 59% (20-93%) and 5.5 ng/l (3.3-7.7 ng/l) in breast milk and 72% (61-81%) and 82.3 ng/kg (63.7-100.9 ng/kg) in dairy products. In general, 9% (4-16%) of milks and 10% (4-17%) of dairy products had aflatoxin M1 in concentrations exceeding the permitted level of Iranian standards (500 ng/l). Based on the maximum permitted aflatoxin M1 concentration in standards of Europe (50 ng/l), these percentages increase to 25% (18-32%) for milks and 18% (9-29%) for dairy products. According to the results, further control and preventive measures should be applied on livestock feeds because decreased aflatoxin B1 contamination at this level results in decreased aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products.
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Affiliation(s)
- S. Hamzeh Pour
- Department of Pathobiology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - S. Mahmoudi
- Students’ Scientific Research Center, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - S. Masoumi
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - S. Rezaie
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - A. Barac
- Clinic for Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Clinical Centre of Serbia, Faculty of Medicine, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - M. Ranjbaran
- Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - S. Oliya
- Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Qazvin University of Medical Sciences, Qazvin, Iran
| | - F. Mehravar
- Health Management and Social Development Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - E. Sasani
- Department of Medical Mycology, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - F. Noorbakhsh
- Department of Microbiology, Biological Science college, Varamin- pishva branch, Islamic Azad University, Varamin-pishva, Iran
| | - S. Khodavaisy
- Department of Medical Parasitology and Mycology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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Alpha-class glutathione S-transferases in wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo): characterization and role in resistance to the carcinogenic mycotoxin aflatoxin B1. PLoS One 2013; 8:e60662. [PMID: 23613737 PMCID: PMC3628786 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0060662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 02/26/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Domestic turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo) are one of the most susceptible animals known to the toxic effects of the mycotoxin aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), a potent human hepatocarcinogen, and universal maize contaminant. We have demonstrated that such susceptibility is associated with the inability of hepatic glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) to detoxify the reactive electrophilic metabolite exo-AFB1-8,9-epoxide (AFBO). Unlike their domestic counterparts, wild turkeys, which are relatively AFB1-resistant, possess hepatic GST-mediated AFBO conjugating activity. Here, we characterized the molecular and functional properties of hepatic alpha-class GSTs (GSTAs) from wild and domestic turkeys to shed light on the differences in resistance between these closely related strains. Six alpha-class GST genes (GSTA) amplified from wild turkeys (Eastern and Rio Grande subspecies), heritage breed turkeys (Royal Palm) and modern domestic (Nicholas strain) turkeys were sequenced, and catalytic activities of heterologously-expressed recombinant enzymes determined. Alpha-class identity was affirmed by conserved GST domains and four signature motifs. All GSTAs contained single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in their coding regions: GSTA1.1 (5 SNPs), GSTA1.2 (7), GSTA1.3 (3), GSTA2 (3), GSTA3 (1) and GSTA4 (2). E. coli-expressed GSTAs possessed varying activities toward GST substrates 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (CDNB), 1,2-dichloro-4-nitrobenzene (DCNB), ethacrynic acid (ECA), cumene hydroperoxide (CHP). As predicted by their relative resistance, livers from domestic turkeys lacked detectable GST-mediated AFBO detoxification activity, whereas those from wild and heritage birds possessed this critical activity, suggesting that intensive breeding and selection resulted in loss of AFB1-protective alleles during domestication. Our observation that recombinant tGSTAs detoxify AFBO, whereas their hepatic forms do not, implies that the hepatic forms of these enzymes are down-regulated, silenced, or otherwise modified by one or more mechanisms. These data may inform of possible molecular mechanisms of resistance to AFB1, and may also have the benefit of identifying genetic markers which could be used to enhance AFB1 resistance in modern domestic strains.
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Değirmencioğlu N, Eseceli H, Demir E, Şentürklü S. Evaluation of total aflatoxin, nitrate and nitrite levels in layer feed samples of companies producing their own feed in Edincik and Bandırma province of Turkey. FOOD ADDITIVES & CONTAMINANTS PART B-SURVEILLANCE 2012; 5:133-9. [DOI: 10.1080/19393210.2012.680200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Lightfoot TL, Yeager JM. Pet bird toxicity and related environmental concerns. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2008; 11:229-59, vi. [PMID: 18406386 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2008.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Birds may be exposed to toxins through various sources in their everyday environment. Toxicity may occur through inhalation or oral or dermal exposures. Clinicians diagnose and treat these toxicities in an effort to correct the disease of the individual patient. Recognition of toxicity in the avian patient has further significance as it relates to the patient's environment, including the health of other animals, humans, and the ecosystem. While some toxicities, such as lead and zinc toxicosis, are well-documented in avian species, others are limited to anecdotal reports and extrapolation from other species. Continued research is needed in this area of avian medicine to expand our knowledge and improve our ability to diagnose and treat toxic conditions in birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Teresa L Lightfoot
- Department of Avian and Exotic Medicine, Florida Veterinary Specialists, Tampa, FL 33614, USA.
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Zinedine A, Juan C, Soriano JM, Moltó JC, Idrissi L, Mañes J. Limited survey for the occurrence of aflatoxins in cereals and poultry feeds from Rabat, Morocco. Int J Food Microbiol 2007; 115:124-7. [PMID: 17218031 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2006] [Revised: 10/02/2006] [Accepted: 10/05/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Fifty eight (58) samples of cereals for human consumption (20 corn flour, 17 wheat flour) and poultry feeds (n=21) purchased from popular markets of Rabat in Morocco were analyzed for aflatoxins (AF) by HPLC with immunoaffinity column (IAC) clean-up and fluorimetric detection. The incidence of AF in corn, wheat flour and poultry feeds was about 80, 17.6 and 66.6% respectively. High contamination levels were found in corn and poultry feeds samples. Levels of contamination of analyzed samples with AFB1 ranged from 0.23 to 11.2, 0.03 to 0.15 and 0.05 to 5.38 ng/g for corn, wheat and poultry feeds respectively. Results showed also that the contamination of 10% of samples of corn was higher than the limit set by EU regulations for AFB1 and total AF. This is the first report on the determination of AF in corn, wheat and poultry feeds from Morocco by HPLC and IAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Zinedine
- Laboratory of Food Toxicology, Institut National d'Hygiène (INH), 27 Avenue Ibn Batouta, BP 769 Agdal, Rabat, Morocco.
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Lawson B, MacDonald S, Howard T, Macgregor SK, Cunningham AA. Exposure of garden birds to aflatoxins in Britain. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2006; 361:124-31. [PMID: 16271383 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2005.09.074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2005] [Revised: 09/22/2005] [Accepted: 09/23/2005] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Aflatoxins are potent biological toxins that have been shown to exert a range of acute and chronic pathological effects. Multiple mortality events of waterfowl caused by acute aflatoxicosis have been documented in the USA. However, international concern has recently been expressed regarding the potential effects of chronic exposure of wildlife species to low levels of dietary aflatoxin. This study documents for the first time the presence of hepatic aflatoxin residues in British wild birds: two passerine species, the house sparrow (Passer domesticus) and greenfinch (Carduelis chloris). Further research is required to investigate the source of the dietary aflatoxins and their pathological significance, if any, for wild birds in Britain.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Lawson
- Institute of Zoology, Zoological Society of London, Regent's Park, London, NW1 4RY, UK.
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