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Rojas A, Germitsch N, Oren S, Sazmand A, Deak G. Wildlife parasitology: sample collection and processing, diagnostic constraints, and methodological challenges in terrestrial carnivores. Parasit Vectors 2024; 17:127. [PMID: 38481271 PMCID: PMC10938792 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-024-06226-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2024] [Indexed: 03/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Wild terrestrial carnivores play a crucial role as reservoir, maintenance, and spillover hosts for a wide parasite variety. They may harbor, shed, and transmit zoonotic parasites and parasites of veterinary importance for domestic hosts. Although wild carnivores are globally distributed and comprise many different species, some living in close proximity to human settlements, only a few studies have investigated parasites of wild terrestrial carnivores using non-specific techniques. Access to samples of wild carnivores may be challenging as some species are protected, and others are secretive, possibly explaining the data paucity. Considering the importance of wild carnivores' health and ecological role, combined with the lack of specific diagnostic methodologies, this review aims to offer an overview of the diagnostic methods for parasite investigation in wild terrestrial carnivores, providing the precise techniques for collection and analysis of fecal, blood, and tissue samples, the environmental impact on said samples, and the limitations researchers currently face in analyzing samples of wild terrestrial carnivores. In addition, this paper offers some crucial information on how different environmental factors affect parasite detection postmortem and how insects can be used to estimate the time of death with a specific highlight on insect larvae. The paper contains a literature review of available procedures and emphasizes the need for diagnostic method standardization in wild terrestrial carnivores.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicia Rojas
- Laboratory of Helminthology, Faculty of Microbiology, University of Costa Rica, San José, 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
- Centro de Investigación en Enfermedades Tropicales, University of Costa Rica, San José, 11501-2060, Costa Rica.
| | - Nina Germitsch
- Pathology and Microbiology, Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, 550 University Ave, Charlottetown, PEI, C1A 4P3, Canada.
| | - Stephanie Oren
- Department of Anatomic Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca, 400372, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
| | - Alireza Sazmand
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Bu-Ali Sina University, Hamedan, 6517658978, Iran.
| | - Georgiana Deak
- Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine of Cluj-Napoca, 400372, Cluj-Napoca, Romania.
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Bouchard É, Sharma R, Hernández-Ortiz A, Buhler K, Al-Adhami B, Su C, Fenton H, G-Gouin G, Roth JD, Rodrigues CW, Pamak C, Simon A, Bachand N, Leighton P, Jenkins E. Are foxes (Vulpes spp.) good sentinel species for Toxoplasma gondii in northern Canada? Parasit Vectors 2022; 15:115. [PMID: 35365191 PMCID: PMC8972674 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-022-05229-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background In changing northern ecosystems, understanding the mechanisms of transmission of zoonotic pathogens, including the coccidian parasite Toxoplasma gondii, is essential to protect the health of vulnerable animals and humans. As high-level predators and scavengers, foxes represent a potentially sensitive indicator of the circulation of T. gondii in environments where humans co-exist. The objectives of our research were to compare serological and molecular assays to detect T. gondii, generate baseline data on T. gondii antibody and tissue prevalence in foxes in northern Canada, and compare regional seroprevalence in foxes with that in people from recently published surveys across northern Canada. Methods Fox carcasses (Vulpes vulpes/Vulpes lagopus, n = 749) were collected by local trappers from the eastern (Labrador and Québec) and western Canadian Arctic (northern Manitoba, Nunavut, and the Northwest Territories) during the winters of 2015–2019. Antibodies in heart fluid were detected using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Toxoplasma gondii DNA was detected in hearts and brains using a magnetic capture DNA extraction and real-time PCR assay. Results Antibodies against T. gondii and DNA were detected in 36% and 27% of foxes, respectively. Detection of antibodies was higher in older (64%) compared to younger foxes (22%). More males (36%) than females (31%) were positive for antibodies to T. gondii. Tissue prevalence in foxes from western Nunavik (51%) was higher than in eastern Nunavik (19%). At the Canadian scale, T. gondii exposure was lower in western Inuit regions (13%) compared to eastern Inuit regions (39%), possibly because of regional differences in fox diet and/or environment. Exposure to T. gondii decreased at higher latitude and in foxes having moderate to little fat. Higher mean infection intensity was observed in Arctic foxes compared to red foxes. Fox and human seroprevalence showed similar trends across Inuit regions of Canada, but were less correlated in the eastern sub-Arctic, which may reflect regional differences in human dietary preferences. Conclusions Our study sheds new light on the current status of T. gondii in foxes in northern Canada and shows that foxes serve as a good sentinel species for environmental circulation and, in some regions, human exposure to this parasite in the Arctic. Graphical Abstract ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-022-05229-3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Émilie Bouchard
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada. .,Research Group On Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health (GREZOSP), Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada.
| | - Rajnish Sharma
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Adrián Hernández-Ortiz
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Kayla Buhler
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Batol Al-Adhami
- Centre for Food-Borne and Animal Parasitology, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Chunlei Su
- Department of Microbiology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN, USA
| | - Heather Fenton
- Ross University School of Veterinary Medicine, Basseterre, Saint Kitts and Nevis
| | | | - James D Roth
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
| | | | - Carla Pamak
- Nunatsiavut Research Centre, Nain, NL, Canada
| | - Audrey Simon
- Research Group On Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health (GREZOSP), Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Nicholas Bachand
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Patrick Leighton
- Research Group On Epidemiology of Zoonoses and Public Health (GREZOSP), Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
| | - Emily Jenkins
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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Wei XY, Gao Y, Lv C, Wang W, Chen Y, Zhao Q, Gong QL, Zhang XX. The global prevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii among foxes: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Microb Pathog 2020; 150:104699. [PMID: 33383150 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104699] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii is one of the most successful intracellular protozoan parasites in the world, which can infect most warm-blooded animals including foxes in the world and cause toxoplasmosis. This is the first meta-analysis to assess the overall prevalence and potential risk factors of T. gondii among foxes in the world. Relevant studies were comprehensively collected from ScienceDirect, Springer-Link, PubMed, VIP Chinese Journal Databases (VIP), WanFang, and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI) databases. The random-effect model was used to calculate pooled prevalence with 95% confidence intervals (CI) and analyzed data were from 20 countries. The pooled T. gondii prevalence in foxes was estimated to be 39.6%. T. gondii has the highest prevalence in North America (51.2%), and lowest in Asia (8.3%). The prevalence in the sub-group after 2006 (44.7%) was lower than 2006 or before (48.5%). The prevalence in female foxes was 46.1%, which was higher than that in male foxes (19.7%). In species subgroup, red fox has the highest prevalence (46.8%). Wild foxes have a higher rate of infection (40.8%) than captive foxes (8.4%). Genotype Ⅱ of T. gondii is the most prevalent in foxes. We also evaluated the effects of geographical and climate variables on pooled prevalence of T. gondii in foxes. Our research indicated that toxoplasmosis widely existed in the world. The investigation of T. gondii infection in wild animals can provide an estimate of environmental pollution and T. gondii circulation in the ecosystem. It is essential for us to prevent and control T. gondii infection in foxes in order to reduce the risk of human infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin-Yu Wei
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang Province, 163319, PR China
| | - Yang Gao
- Chongqing Auleon Biological Co Ltd, Rongchang, Chongqing, 402460, PR China; The Key Sericultural Laboratory of Agricultural Ministry, College of Biotechnology, Southwest University, Chongqing, 400715, PR China
| | - Chuang Lv
- Shandong New Hope Liuhe Group Co Ltd, Qingdao, 266100, PR China
| | - Wei Wang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang Province, 163319, PR China
| | - Yu Chen
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang Province, 163319, PR China
| | - Quan Zhao
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin Province, 130118, PR China
| | - Qing-Long Gong
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun, Jilin Province, 130118, PR China.
| | - Xiao-Xuan Zhang
- College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang Province, 163319, PR China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, Shandong Province, 266109, PR China
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Dubey JP, Murata FHA, Cerqueira-Cézar CK, Kwok OCH. Recent epidemiologic and clinical Toxoplasma gondii infections in wild canids and other carnivores: 2009-2020. Vet Parasitol 2020; 290:109337. [PMID: 33476902 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2020.109337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 12/13/2020] [Accepted: 12/14/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. The present review summarizes worldwide information on the prevalence of clinical and subclinical infections, epidemiology, diagnosis, and genetic diversity of T. gondii in wild canids and other carnivores for the past decade. Seroprevalence estimates of T. gondii worldwide were tabulated for each host. Seroprevalence in wild foxes was very high compared with farmed Arctic foxes. Economic and public health aspects of some of the carnivore species raised for fur and meat (raccoon dogs, mink) are discussed. Diagnostic efficacies of different serological methods and PCR methods are discussed. Clinical toxoplasmosis was observed mainly in carnivores concurrently infected with immunosuppressive Canine Distemper Virus infection. Abortion and blindness were noted in mink. Genetic diversity of isolates using DNA derived from 162 (89 viable T. gondii isolates and 73 DNA extracted from tissues) of wild carnivores from several countries is discussed. However, 69 of the 162 T. gondii isolates were strains from USA and these were genetically diverse with predominance of ToxoDB genotypes #4 and #5 (haplogroup 12). Only limited information is available concerning genotyping of T. gondii isolates from other countries; none of the 93 T. gondii isolates from other countries (Brazil, China, France, Grenada) were haplogroup 12.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jitender P Dubey
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Building 1001, Beltsville, MD, 20705-2350, USA.
| | - Fernando H A Murata
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Building 1001, Beltsville, MD, 20705-2350, USA
| | - Camila K Cerqueira-Cézar
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Building 1001, Beltsville, MD, 20705-2350, USA
| | - Oliver C H Kwok
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, Animal Parasitic Diseases Laboratory, Building 1001, Beltsville, MD, 20705-2350, USA
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Buhler KJ, Maggi RG, Gailius J, Galloway TD, Chilton NB, Alisauskas RT, Samelius G, Bouchard É, Jenkins EJ. Hopping species and borders: detection of Bartonella spp. in avian nest fleas and arctic foxes from Nunavut, Canada. Parasit Vectors 2020; 13:469. [PMID: 32928287 PMCID: PMC7490881 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-020-04344-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In a warmer and more globally connected Arctic, vector-borne pathogens of zoonotic importance may be increasing in prevalence in native wildlife. Recently, Bartonella henselae, the causative agent of cat scratch fever, was detected in blood collected from arctic foxes (Vulpes lagopus) that were captured and released in the large goose colony at Karrak Lake, Nunavut, Canada. This bacterium is generally associated with cats and cat fleas, which are absent from Arctic ecosystems. Arctic foxes in this region feed extensively on migratory geese, their eggs, and their goslings. Thus, we hypothesized that a nest flea, Ceratophyllus vagabundus vagabundus (Boheman, 1865), may serve as a vector for transmission of Bartonella spp. METHODS We determined the prevalence of Bartonella spp. in (i) nest fleas collected from 5 arctic fox dens and (ii) 37 surrounding goose nests, (iii) fleas collected from 20 geese harvested during arrival at the nesting grounds and (iv) blood clots from 57 adult live-captured arctic foxes. A subsample of fleas were identified morphologically as C. v. vagabundus. Remaining fleas were pooled for each nest, den, or host. DNA was extracted from flea pools and blood clots and analyzed with conventional and real-time polymerase chain reactions targeting the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic transcribed spacer region. RESULTS Bartonella henselae was identified in 43% of pooled flea samples from nests and 40% of pooled flea samples from fox dens. Bartonella vinsonii berkhoffii was identified in 30% of pooled flea samples collected from 20 geese. Both B. vinsonii berkhoffii (n = 2) and B. rochalimae (n = 1) were identified in the blood of foxes. CONCLUSIONS We confirm that B. henselae, B. vinsonii berkhoffii and B. rochalimae circulate in the Karrak Lake ecosystem and that nest fleas contain B. vinsonii and B. henselae DNA, suggesting that this flea may serve as a potential vector for transmission among Arctic wildlife.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kayla J Buhler
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5B4, Canada.
| | - Ricardo G Maggi
- Intracellular Pathogens Research Laboratory, College of Veterinary Medicine, North Carolina State University, 1060 William Moore Drive, Raleigh, NC, 27606, USA
| | - Julie Gailius
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Terry D Galloway
- Department of Entomology, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Manitoba, 12 Dafoe Road, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Neil B Chilton
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E2, Canada
| | - Ray T Alisauskas
- Department of Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Science Place, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5E2, Canada
- Prairie and Northern Wildlife Research Centre, Wildlife Research Division, Environment and Climate Change Canada, 115 Perimeter Road, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 0X4, Canada
| | - Gustaf Samelius
- Snow Leopard Trust, 4649 Sunnyside Ave North, Suite 325, Seattle, WA, 98103, USA
| | - Émilie Bouchard
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5B4, Canada
| | - Emily J Jenkins
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Western College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Saskatchewan, 52 Campus Drive, Saskatoon, SK, S7N 5B4, Canada
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