The effect of an integrated reading and anxiety intervention for poor readers with anxiety

Electrophysiological evidence of lexical processing impacted by foreign language reading anxiety

Extensive studies have been conducted on the impact of foreign language reading anxiety on reading, primarily focusing on pedagogy and behavior but lacking electrophysiological evidence. The current study aimed to investigate the influence of foreign language reading anxiety on reading and its underlying mechanisms. The results revealed a negative correlation between foreign language reading anxiety and foreign language reading performance, irrespective of the native language. Adults with low levels of foreign language reading anxiety (LFLRA) demonstrated a significant difference in early lexical component N170 amplitude between foreign and native languages. However, this effect was not observed in adults with high levels of foreign language reading anxiety (HFLRA). In terms of N170 latency, HFLRA showed a longer N170 for the foreign language compared to the native language. Furthermore, the N170 effects were predominantly localized over the left occipitotemporal electrodes. Regarding N400 latency, a significant difference was found in LFLRA individuals between foreign and native language processing, while HFLRA individuals did not exhibit this difference. These findings suggest that HFLRA individuals experience inefficient lexical processing (such as orthography or semantics) during reading in foreign language.

Internalizing problems in individuals with reading, mathematics and unspecified learning difficulties: a systematic review and meta-analysis

We conducted a systematic review and meta-analysis to examine if individuals with reading difficulties (RD), mathematics difficulties (MD), or unspecified learning difficulties (ULD) experience internalizing problems (i.e., anxiety, depression, somatic complaints, and social withdrawal) to the same extent, and if the effect sizes are influenced by moderators (age, internalizing problems type, anxiety type, rater type, selection criteria, and attention control). We reviewed 2,806 studies published in English between January 2000 and April 2023. Our final sample consisted of 96 studies that reported effect sizes or data to calculate them (a total of 120 unique samples, 83,260 participants, age range = 7.3 - 34.8 years). Risk of bias and sensitivity were assessed. A random-effects model analysis revealed a significant and moderate overall effect size (Hedge's g = -.54), indicating that individuals with RD, MD or ULD experience more internalizing problems than their chronological-age (CA) controls. Follow-up analyses showed that neither learning difficulties type nor age of participants were significant moderators, but selection criteria (diagnosis versus screening) and internalizing problems type were. These findings suggest that individuals with RD do not differ from those with MD or ULD in internalizing problems, and all fare poorly compared to CA controls.

Are comorbidities of poor reading related to elevated anxiety in children?

Studies of the association between dyslexia and mental health have typically tried to minimise the influence of dyslexia comorbidities on the outcomes. However, in the "real world", many children with dyslexia have these comorbidities. In this study, we tested (1) if children with dyslexia with three common comorbidities - inattention, hyperactivity, language difficulties - experience more anxiety than children with dyslexia without these comorbidities; and (2) if any type of comorbidity is related to a certain type of anxiety (reading, social, generalised, or separation). The data of 82 children with dyslexia (mean age = 9 years and 4 months; 25 girls) were analysed using Fisher exact tests, which revealed that those with inattention (40.54%) or hyperactivity (42.30%) were statistically significantly more likely to experience elevated anxiety than children with dyslexia without these comorbidities (8.11 and 14.28%, respectively). This was not the case for language difficulties (24.5% versus 30%). Spearman ρ correlations (α = .05) indicated significant moderate relationships between inattention and reading anxiety (.27), social anxiety (.37), and generalised anxiety (.24); and between hyperactivity and social anxiety (.24) and generalised anxiety (.28). There were no significant correlations between language and anxiety. Examination of highly inter-correlated variables suggested a specific relationship between one type of comorbidity (inattention) and one type of anxiety (reading anxiety).

Understanding the relation between reading and anxiety among upper elementary students with reading difficulties

This study examined the relations between reading anxiety, general anxiety, and test anxiety in a sample of students with reading difficulties (n = 536). It also tested if dimensions of anxiety were differentially related to word reading accuracy and fluency, text reading fluency, or reading comprehension. The results indicated that the three anxiety measures were significantly related (r = 0.51 to 0.56, p < .001). Additionally, higher reading anxiety was related to poorer word reading fluency, text reading fluency, and comprehension outcomes. Further analyses indicated that these relations existed in students who fell in the middle and upper quantiles for reading, but not the lowest quantile. This pattern of findings suggests that the relation is complex and varies depending on severity of reading difficulty. Results may help to inform future efforts to support students with reading difficulties, including students with dyslexia.

Are General Anxiety, Reading Anxiety, and Reading Self-Concept Linked to Reading Skills Among Chinese Adolescents With and Without Dyslexia?

This study investigated the cross-sectional relationships between reading-related affective and cognitive factors and reading skills among adolescents with and without dyslexia. Participants were 120 Chinese-speaking eighth graders, including 60 adolescents with dyslexia and 60 typically developing adolescents from Hong Kong, China. Adolescents completed questionnaires on general anxiety, reading anxiety, and reading self-concept. They were also assessed on measures of rapid digit naming, verbal working memory, word reading, reading fluency, and reading comprehension. The results showed that readers with dyslexia reported higher levels of general anxiety and reading anxiety and lower levels of reading self-concept than typical readers. They also showed difficulties in rapid digit naming and verbal working memory. Importantly, controlling for rapid digit naming and verbal working memory, reading self-concept was uniquely associated with word reading and reading fluency for readers with and without dyslexia. Furthermore, reading anxiety and reading self-concept were uniquely associated with reading comprehension for the two groups of readers. The findings point to the importance of considering affective factors when examining the reading skills of Chinese readers and the utility of targeting these factors when supporting the learning of adolescents with and without dyslexia.

Developmental Dyslexia: Insights from EEG-Based Findings and Molecular Signatures-A Pilot Study

Developmental dyslexia (DD) is a learning disorder. Although risk genes have been identified, environmental factors, and particularly stress arising from constant difficulties, have been associated with the occurrence of DD by affecting brain plasticity and function, especially during critical neurodevelopmental stages. In this work, electroencephalogram (EEG) findings were coupled with the genetic and epigenetic molecular signatures of individuals with DD and matched controls. Specifically, we investigated the genetic and epigenetic correlates of key stress-associated genes (NR3C1, NR3C2, FKBP5, GILZ, SLC6A4) with psychological characteristics (depression, anxiety, and stress) often included in DD diagnostic criteria, as well as with brain EEG findings. We paired the observed brain rhythms with the expression levels of stress-related genes, investigated the epigenetic profile of the stress regulator glucocorticoid receptor (GR) and correlated such indices with demographic findings. This study presents a new interdisciplinary approach and findings that support the idea that stress, attributed to the demands of the school environment, may act as a contributing factor in the occurrence of the DD phenotype.

Exam stress and the metacognitive strategies of reading in students with dyslexia: The role of motivational mechanisms and educational support

Despite numerous studies on dyslexia, there is still a lack of empirical data on the factors determining the functioning of students with dyslexia in the context of written exams. Therefore, the aim of the study is to identify the relationship between sources of stress in an exam situation and the reported use of reading strategies by dyslexic students in terms of motivation and therapeutic interventions in the educational environment. This descriptive-analytical study used data from a larger project focused on children with and without dyslexia. The research sample (n = 640) included girls (n = 280) and boys (n = 360) aged between 14 and 15 years (M = 14.40, SD = 0.55), attending the 7th or 8th grade in Polish mainstream primary schools. Random and intentional sampling was used. All students completed four questionnaires. The results were analyzed using regression analysis in Model templates for PROCESS v4 for SPSS by Hayes. The study showed significant weak and moderate positive correlations between the sources of exam stress and the reading strategies reported by students, ranging from 0.186 to 0.570, as well as significant moderate and strong correlations between reading strategies and experienced educational support, ranging from 0.229 to 0.505, and between reading strategies and motivation to read, ranging from 0.582 to 0.701. The type of stress source significantly influenced the selection of specific reading strategies. Motivation acted as a mediator, while educational support was a moderator in the relationship between exam stress and the reported use of reading strategies. Based on our results, the source of stress may be perceived as factors activating metacognitive mechanisms aimed at selecting appropriate strategies for working with texts. Researchers and teachers should be aware of the need to undertake activities to support students with dyslexia focused on developing the ability to recognize the sources of exam stress and select effective coping strategies.

Perceptions of intelligence & sentience shape children's interactions with robot reading companions

The potential for robots to support education is being increasingly studied and rapidly realised. However, most research evaluating education robots has neglected to examine the fundamental features that make them more or less effective, given the needs and expectations of learners. This study explored how children's perceptions, expectations and experiences are shaped by aesthetic and functional features during interactions with different robot 'reading buddies'. We collected a range of quantitative and qualitative measures of subjective experience before and after children read a book with one of three different robots. An inductive thematic analysis revealed that robots have the potential offer children an engaging and non-judgemental social context to promote reading engagement. This was supported by children's perceptions of robots as being intelligent enough to read, listen and comprehend the story, particularly when they had the capacity to talk. A key challenge in the use of robots for this purpose was the unpredictable nature of robot behaviour, which remains difficult to perfectly control and time using either human operators or autonomous algorithms. Consequently, some children found the robots' responses distracting. We provide recommendations for future research seeking to position seemingly sentient and intelligent robots as an assistive tool within and beyond education settings.