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Yu XL, Liu CY, Jiang L, Huang LT, Luo Y, Zhang P, Zhang YY, Liu S, Huang H. Local adaptation of trophic strategy determined the tolerance of coral Galaxea fascicularis to environmental fluctuations. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 943:173694. [PMID: 38852868 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173694] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/11/2024]
Abstract
The escalation of global change has resulted in heightened frequencies and intensities of environmental fluctuations within coral reef ecosystems. Corals originating from marginal reefs have potentially enhanced their adaptive capabilities in response to these environmental variations through processes of local adaptation. However, the intricate mechanisms driving this phenomenon remain a subject of limited investigation. This study aimed to investigate how corals in Luhuitou reef, a representative relatively high-latitude reef in China, adapt to seasonal fluctuations in seawater temperature and light availability. We conducted a 190-day plantation experiment with the widespread species, Galaxea fascicularis, in Luhuitou local, and from Meiji reef, a typical offshore tropical reef, to Luhuitou as comparison. Drawing upon insights from physiological adaptations, we focused on fatty acid (FA) profiles to unravel the trophic strategies of G. fascicularis to cope with environmental fluctuations from two origins. Our main findings are threefold: 1) Native corals exhibited a stronger physiological resilience compared to those transplanted from Meiji. 2) Corals from both origins consumed large quantities of energy reserves in winter, during which FA profiles of local corals altered, while the change of FA profiles of corals from Meiji was probably due to the excessive consumption of saturated fatty acid (SFA). 3) The better resilience of native corals is related to high levels of functional polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA), while insufficient nutrient reserves, possibly due to weak heterotrophic ability, result in the obstruction of the synthesis pathway of PUFA for corals from Meiji, leading to their intolerance to environmental changes. Consequently, we suggest that the tolerance of G. fascicularis to environmental fluctuations is determined by their local adapted trophic strategies. Furthermore, our findings underscore the notion that the rapid adaptation of relatively high-latitude corals to seasonal environmental fluctuations might not be readily attainable for their tropical counterparts within a brief timeframe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Lei Yu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; CAS-HKUST Sanya Joint Laboratory of Marine Science Research, Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology of Hainan Province, Sanya Institute of Oceanology, SCSIO, Sanya 572000, China; Sanya National Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Tropical Marine Biological Research Station in Hainan, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya 572000, China
| | - Cheng-Yue Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; CAS-HKUST Sanya Joint Laboratory of Marine Science Research, Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology of Hainan Province, Sanya Institute of Oceanology, SCSIO, Sanya 572000, China; Sanya National Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Tropical Marine Biological Research Station in Hainan, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya 572000, China
| | - Lei Jiang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; CAS-HKUST Sanya Joint Laboratory of Marine Science Research, Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology of Hainan Province, Sanya Institute of Oceanology, SCSIO, Sanya 572000, China; Sanya National Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Tropical Marine Biological Research Station in Hainan, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya 572000, China
| | - Lin-Tao Huang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; CAS-HKUST Sanya Joint Laboratory of Marine Science Research, Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology of Hainan Province, Sanya Institute of Oceanology, SCSIO, Sanya 572000, China; Sanya National Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Tropical Marine Biological Research Station in Hainan, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya 572000, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yong Luo
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; CAS-HKUST Sanya Joint Laboratory of Marine Science Research, Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology of Hainan Province, Sanya Institute of Oceanology, SCSIO, Sanya 572000, China; Sanya National Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Tropical Marine Biological Research Station in Hainan, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya 572000, China
| | - Pan Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; CAS-HKUST Sanya Joint Laboratory of Marine Science Research, Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology of Hainan Province, Sanya Institute of Oceanology, SCSIO, Sanya 572000, China; Sanya National Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Tropical Marine Biological Research Station in Hainan, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya 572000, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Yu-Yang Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; CAS-HKUST Sanya Joint Laboratory of Marine Science Research, Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology of Hainan Province, Sanya Institute of Oceanology, SCSIO, Sanya 572000, China; Sanya National Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Tropical Marine Biological Research Station in Hainan, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya 572000, China
| | - Sheng Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; CAS-HKUST Sanya Joint Laboratory of Marine Science Research, Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology of Hainan Province, Sanya Institute of Oceanology, SCSIO, Sanya 572000, China; Sanya National Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Tropical Marine Biological Research Station in Hainan, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya 572000, China
| | - Hui Huang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Bio-resources and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Marine Biology, South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510301, China; CAS-HKUST Sanya Joint Laboratory of Marine Science Research, Key Laboratory of Tropical Marine Biotechnology of Hainan Province, Sanya Institute of Oceanology, SCSIO, Sanya 572000, China; Sanya National Marine Ecosystem Research Station, Tropical Marine Biological Research Station in Hainan, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Sanya 572000, China.
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Abstract
The vast majority of environmental microbes have not yet been cultured, and most of the knowledge on coral-associated microbes (CAMs) has been generated from amplicon sequencing and metagenomes. However, exploring cultured CAMs is key for a detailed and comprehensive characterization of the roles of these microbes in shaping coral health and, ultimately, for their biotechnological use as, for example, coral probiotics and other natural products. Here, the strategies and technologies that have been used to access cultured CAMs are presented, while advantages and disadvantages associated with each of these strategies are discussed. We highlight the existing gaps and potential improvements in culture-dependent methodologies, indicating several possible alternatives (including culturomics and in situ diffusion devices) that could be applied to retrieve the CAM "dark matter" (i.e., the currently undescribed CAMs). This study provides the most comprehensive synthesis of the methodologies used to recover the cultured coral microbiome to date and draws suggestions for the development of the next generation of CAM culturomics.
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McLachlan RH, Dobson KL, Schmeltzer ER, Vega Thurber R, Grottoli AG. A review of coral bleaching specimen collection, preservation, and laboratory processing methods. PeerJ 2021; 9:e11763. [PMID: 34285838 PMCID: PMC8272927 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.11763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Under current climate warming predictions, the future of coral reefs is dire. With projected coral reef decline, it is likely that coral specimens for bleaching research will increasingly become a more limited resource in the future. By adopting a holistic approach through increased collaborations, coral bleaching scientists can maximize a specimen’s investigative yield, thus reducing the need to remove more coral material from the reef. Yet to expand a specimen’s utility for additional analytic methods, information on how corals are collected is essential as many methods are variably sensitive to upstream handling and processing. In an effort to identify common practices for coral collection, sacrifice, preservation, and processing in coral bleaching research, we surveyed the literature from the last 6.5 years and created and analyzed the resulting dataset of 171 publications. Since January 2014, at least 21,890 coral specimens were collected for bleaching surveys or bleaching experiments. These specimens spanned 122 species of scleractinian corals where the most frequently sampled were Acropora millepora, Pocillopora damicornis, and Stylophora pistillata. Almost 90% of studies removed fragments from the reef, 6% collected skeletal cores, and 3% collected mucus specimens. The most common methods for sacrificing specimens were snap freezing with liquid nitrogen, chemical preservation (e.g., with ethanol or nucleic acid stabilizing buffer), or airbrushing live fragments. We also characterized 37 distinct methodological pathways from collection to processing of specimens in preparation for a variety of physiological, -omic, microscopy, and imaging analyses. Interestingly, almost half of all studies used only one of six different pathways. These similarities in collection, preservation, and processing methods illustrate that archived coral specimens could be readily shared among researchers for additional analyses. In addition, our review provides a reference for future researchers who are considering which methodological pathway to select to maximize the utility of coral bleaching specimens that they collect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowan H McLachlan
- School of Earth Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States of America
| | - Kerri L Dobson
- School of Earth Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States of America
| | - Emily R Schmeltzer
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States of America
| | - Rebecca Vega Thurber
- Department of Microbiology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR, United States of America
| | - Andréa G Grottoli
- School of Earth Sciences, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, United States of America
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Lugo Charriez K, Soledade Lemos L, Carrazana Y, Rodríguez-Casariego JA, Eirin-Lopez JM, Hauser-Davis RA, Gardinali P, Quinete N. Application of an Improved Chloroform-Free Lipid Extraction Method to Staghorn Coral (Acropora cervicornis) Lipidomics Assessments. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2021; 107:92-99. [PMID: 33392686 DOI: 10.1007/s00128-020-03078-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2020] [Accepted: 12/06/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Lipids are excellent biomarkers for assessing coral stress, although staghorn coral data (Acropora cervicornis) is lacking. Lipid extraction is the most critical step in lipidomic assessments, usually performed using carcinogenic solvents. Efficient alternative using less toxic methods, such as the BUME method using butanol and methanol as extraction solvents, have not been applied to coral lipidomics evaluations. Thus, we aimed to develop a lipidomic approach to identify important coral health biomarkers by comparing different solvent mixtures in staghorn corals. Total lipid extraction was equivalent for both tested methods, but due to its efficiency in extracting polar lipids, the BUME method was chosen. It was then applied to different coral masses (0.33-1.00 g), resulting in non-significant differences concerning number of lipid classes and compounds. Therefore, this method can be successfully applied to coral assessments in a climate change context, with the added benefit of low sample masses, lessening coral sampling impacts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yailee Carrazana
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th Street, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Javier A Rodríguez-Casariego
- Institute of Environment, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
- Environmental Epigenetics Laboratory, Institute of Environment, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Jose M Eirin-Lopez
- Institute of Environment, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
- Environmental Epigenetics Laboratory, Institute of Environment, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Rachel Ann Hauser-Davis
- Laboratório de Avaliação e Promoção da Saúde Ambiental, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Av. Brasil, Rio de Janeiro, Manguinhos, 4365, Brazil
| | - Piero Gardinali
- Institute of Environment, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th Street, Miami, FL, 33199, USA
| | - Natalia Quinete
- Institute of Environment, Florida International University, Miami, FL, USA.
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Florida International University, 11200 SW 8th Street, Miami, FL, 33199, USA.
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Marangoni LFDB, Mies M, Güth AZ, Banha TNS, Inague A, Fonseca JDS, Dalmolin C, Faria SC, Ferrier-Pagès C, Bianchini A. Peroxynitrite Generation and Increased Heterotrophic Capacity Are Linked to the Disruption of the Coral-Dinoflagellate Symbiosis in a Scleractinian and Hydrocoral Species. Microorganisms 2019; 7:microorganisms7100426. [PMID: 31600926 PMCID: PMC6843776 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms7100426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2019] [Revised: 09/13/2019] [Accepted: 09/16/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Ocean warming is one of the greatest global threats to coral reef ecosystems; it leads to the disruption of the coral–dinoflagellate symbiosis (bleaching) and to nutrient starvation, because corals mostly rely on autotrophy (i.e., the supply of photosynthates from the dinoflagellate symbionts) for their energy requirements. Although coral bleaching has been well studied, the early warning signs of bleaching, as well as the capacity of corals to shift from autotrophy to heterotrophy, are still under investigation. In this study, we evaluated the bleaching occurrence of the scleractinian coral Mussismillia harttii and the hydrocoral Millepora alcicornis during a natural thermal stress event, under the 2015–2016 El Niño influence in three reef sites of the South Atlantic. We focused on the link between peroxynitrite (ONOO−) generation and coral bleaching, as ONOO− has been very poorly investigated in corals and never during a natural bleaching event. We also investigated the natural trophic plasticity of the two corals through the use of new lipid biomarkers. The results obtained first demonstrate that ONOO− is linked to the onset and intensity of bleaching in both scleractinian corals and hydrocorals. Indeed, ONOO− concentrations were correlated with bleaching intensity, with the highest levels preceding the highest bleaching intensity. The time lag between bleaching and ONOO− peak was, however, species-specific. In addition, we observed that elevated temperatures forced heterotrophy in scleractinian corals, as Mu. harttii presented high heterotrophic activity 15 to 30 days prior bleaching occurrence. On the contrary, a lower heterotrophic activity was monitored for the hydrocoral Mi. alicornis, which also experienced higher bleaching levels compared to Mu. hartii. Overall, we showed that the levels of ONOO− in coral tissue, combined to the heterotrophic capacity, are two good proxies explaining the intensity of coral bleaching.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Fernandes de Barros Marangoni
- Pós-Graduação em Oceanografia Biológica, Oceanographic Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande, Av. Itália, Km 8, Rio Grande, RS 96203-900, Brazil;
- Coral Vivo Institute, Rua dos Coqueiros, Parque Yaya, Santa Cruz Cabrália, BA 45.807-000, Brazil;
- Centre Scientifique de Monaco, Marine Department, 8 Quai Antoine 1er, MC-98000, Monaco;
- Correspondence: or
| | - Miguel Mies
- Coral Vivo Institute, Rua dos Coqueiros, Parque Yaya, Santa Cruz Cabrália, BA 45.807-000, Brazil;
- Oceanographic Institute, University of São Paulo. Praça do Oceanográfico, 191-05508-120 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (A.Z.G.); (T.N.S.B.)
| | - Arthur Z. Güth
- Oceanographic Institute, University of São Paulo. Praça do Oceanográfico, 191-05508-120 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (A.Z.G.); (T.N.S.B.)
| | - Thomás N. S. Banha
- Oceanographic Institute, University of São Paulo. Praça do Oceanográfico, 191-05508-120 São Paulo, SP, Brazil; (A.Z.G.); (T.N.S.B.)
| | - Alex Inague
- Chemistry Institute, University of São Paulo. Av Prof Lineu Prestes, 748-05508-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil;
| | - Juliana da Silva Fonseca
- Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Biological Science Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande, Av. Itália, Km 8, Rio Grande, RS 96203-900, Brazil (C.D.)
| | - Camila Dalmolin
- Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Biological Science Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande, Av. Itália, Km 8, Rio Grande, RS 96203-900, Brazil (C.D.)
| | - Samuel Coelho Faria
- Institute of Biosciences, University of São Paulo. São Paulo, SP 05508-090, Brazil;
- Bermuda Institute of Ocean Sciences, St. George’s GE01, Bermuda
| | | | - Adalto Bianchini
- Pós-Graduação em Oceanografia Biológica, Oceanographic Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande, Av. Itália, Km 8, Rio Grande, RS 96203-900, Brazil;
- Coral Vivo Institute, Rua dos Coqueiros, Parque Yaya, Santa Cruz Cabrália, BA 45.807-000, Brazil;
- Pós-Graduação em Ciências Fisiológicas, Biological Science Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande, Av. Itália, Km 8, Rio Grande, RS 96203-900, Brazil (C.D.)
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Conlan JA, Bay LK, Severati A, Humphrey C, Francis DS. Comparing the capacity of five different dietary treatments to optimise growth and nutritional composition in two scleractinian corals. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0207956. [PMID: 30485343 PMCID: PMC6261599 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207956] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Developing an optimal heterotrophic feeding regime has the potential to improve captive coral growth and health. This study evaluated the efficacy of three exogenous diets: Artemia nauplii (ART), a commercially available coral diet (Reef Roids) (RR), and a novel, micro-bound diet (ATF), against a comparatively natural, unfiltered seawater treatment (RAW), and an unfed, ultra-filtered seawater treatment (CTL), in adult Acropora millepora and Pocillopora acuta nubbins. After 90 days, both species showed significantly positive weight gain in response to one treatment (A. millepora-RAW, P. acuta-ART), and comparatively low growth in response to another (A. millepora-ATF, P. acuta-RR). The results highlighted substantial differences in the nutritional requirements between species. The nutritional composition of A. millepora in the best performing treatment was dominated by high-energy materials such as storage lipids and saturated and monounsaturated fatty acids. In contrast, the P. acuta nutritional profile in the superior treatment showed a predominance of structural materials, including protein, phospholipids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids. This study demonstrates that Artemia nauplii can successfully replace a natural feeding regime for captive P. acuta, yet highlights the considerable work still required to optimise supplementary feeding regimes for A. millepora.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A. Conlan
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria, Australia
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Line K. Bay
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Andrea Severati
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Craig Humphrey
- Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - David S. Francis
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Waurn Ponds, Victoria, Australia
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Conlan JA, Humphrey CA, Severati A, Francis DS. Intra-colonial diversity in the scleractinian coral, Acropora millepora: identifying the nutritional gradients underlying physiological integration and compartmentalised functioning. PeerJ 2018; 6:e4239. [PMID: 29404204 PMCID: PMC5793706 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.4239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Scleractinian corals are colonial organisms comprising multiple physiologically integrated polyps and branches. Colonialism in corals is highly beneficial, and allows a single colony to undergo several life processes at once through physiological integration and compartmentalised functioning. Elucidating differences in the biochemical composition of intra-colonial branch positions will provide valuable insight into the nutritional reserves underlying different regions in individual coral colonies. This will also ascertain prudent harvesting strategies of wild donor-colonies to generate coral stock with high survival and vigour prospects for reef-rehabilitation efforts and captive husbandry. This study examined the effects of colony branch position on the nutritional profile of two different colony sizes of the common scleractinian, Acropora millepora. For smaller colonies, branches were sampled at three locations: the colony centre (S-centre), 50% of the longitudinal radius length (LRL) (S-50), and the colony edge (S-edge). For larger colonies, four locations were sampled: the colony centre (L-centre), 33.3% of the LRL (L-33), 66.6% of the LRL (L-66), and the edge (L-edge). Results demonstrate significant branch position effects, with the edge regions containing higher protein, likely due to increased tissue synthesis and calcification. Meanwhile, storage lipid and total fatty acid concentrations were lower at the edges, possibly reflecting catabolism of high-energy nutrients to support proliferating cells. Results also showed a significant effect of colony size in the two classes examined. While the major protein and structural lipid sink was exhibited at the edge for both sizes, the major sink for high-energy lipids and fatty acids appeared to be the L-66 position of the larger colonies and the S-centre and S-50 positions for the smaller colonies. These results confirm that the scleractinian coral colony is not nutritionally homogeneous, and while different regions of the coral colony are functionally specialised, so too are their nutritional profiles geared toward meeting specific energetic demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica A Conlan
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria, Australia
| | - Craig A Humphrey
- The National Sea Simulator, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - Andrea Severati
- The National Sea Simulator, Australian Institute of Marine Science, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | - David S Francis
- School of Life and Environmental Sciences, Deakin University, Warrnambool, Victoria, Australia
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