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Otte PJ, Cromsigt JPGM, Smit C, Hofmeester TR. Snow cover-related camouflage mismatch increases detection by predators. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY. PART A, ECOLOGICAL AND INTEGRATIVE PHYSIOLOGY 2024; 341:327-337. [PMID: 38247310 DOI: 10.1002/jez.2784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Camouflage expressed by animals is an adaptation to local environments that certain animals express to maximize survival and fitness. Animals at higher latitudes change their coat color according to a seasonally changing environment, expressing a white coat in winter and a darker coat in summer. The timing of molting is tightly linked to the appearance and disappearance of snow and is mainly regulated by photoperiod. However, due to climate change, an increasing mismatch is observed between the coat color of these species and their environment. Here, we conducted an experiment in northern Sweden, with white and brown decoys to study how camouflage (mis)-match influenced (1) predator attraction to decoys, and (2) predation events. Using camera trap data, we showed that mismatching decoys attracted more predators and experienced a higher likelihood of predation events in comparison to matching decoys, suggesting that camouflage mismatched animals experience increased detection by predators. These results provide insight into the function of a seasonal color coat and the need for this adaptation to maximize fitness in an environment that is exposed to high seasonality. Thus, our results suggest that, with increasing climate change and reduced snow cover, animals expressing a seasonal color coat will experience a decrease in survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pieter J Otte
- Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Joris P G M Cromsigt
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Zoology, Centre for African Conservation Ecology, Nelson Mandela University, Gqeberha, South Africa
| | - Christian Smit
- Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Tim R Hofmeester
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Environmental Studies, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Umeå, Sweden
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2
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Buzan E, Potočnik H, Pokorny B, Potušek S, Iacolina L, Gerič U, Urzi F, Kos I. Molecular analysis of scats revealed diet and prey choice of grey wolves and Eurasian lynx in the contact zone between the Dinaric Mountains and the Alps. Front Zool 2024; 21:9. [PMID: 38500207 PMCID: PMC10949697 DOI: 10.1186/s12983-024-00530-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
A comprehensive understanding of the dietary habits of carnivores is essential to get ecological insights into their role in the ecosystem, potential competition with other carnivorous species, and their effect on prey populations. Genetic analysis of non-invasive samples, such as scats, can supplement behavioural or microscopic diet investigations. The objective of this study was to employ DNA metabarcoding to accurately determine the prey species in grey wolf (Canis lupus) and Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) scat samples collected in the Julian Alps and the Dinaric Mountains, Slovenia. The primary prey of wolves were red deer (Cervus elaphus) (detected in 96% scat samples), European roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) (68%), and wild boar (Sus scrofa) (45%). A smaller portion of their diet consisted of mesocarnivores, small mammals, and domestic animals. In contrast, the lynx diet mostly consisted of European roe deer (82%) and red deer (64%). However, small mammals and domestic animals were also present in lynx diet, albeit to a lesser extent. Our findings indicate that the dietary habits of wolves and lynx are influenced by geographical location. Snapshot dietary analyses using metabarcoding are valuable for comprehending the behaviour and ecology of predators, and for devising conservation measures aimed at sustainable management of both their natural habitats and prey populations. However, to gain a more detailed understanding of wolf and lynx dietary habits and ecological impact, it would be essential to conduct long-term genetic monitoring of their diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Buzan
- Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, University of Primorska, Glagoljaška 8, 6000, Koper, Slovenia
- Faculty of Environmental Protection, Trg mladosti 7, 3320, Velenje, Slovenia
| | - Hubert Potočnik
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Boštjan Pokorny
- Faculty of Environmental Protection, Trg mladosti 7, 3320, Velenje, Slovenia
- Slovenian Forestry Institute, Večna pot 2, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Sandra Potušek
- Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, University of Primorska, Glagoljaška 8, 6000, Koper, Slovenia
| | - Laura Iacolina
- Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, University of Primorska, Glagoljaška 8, 6000, Koper, Slovenia
- Department of Chemistry and Bioscience, Aalborg University, Frederik Bajers Vej 7H, 9220, Aalborg, Denmark
| | - Urška Gerič
- Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, University of Primorska, Glagoljaška 8, 6000, Koper, Slovenia
| | - Felicita Urzi
- Faculty of Mathematics, Natural Sciences and Information Technologies, University of Primorska, Glagoljaška 8, 6000, Koper, Slovenia.
| | - Ivan Kos
- Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Jamnikarjeva 101, 1000, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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3
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Dillon RM, Paterson JE, Manorome P, Ritchie K, Shirose L, Slavik E, Davy CM. Effects of ophidiomycosis on movement, survival, and reproduction of eastern foxsnakes (Pantherophis vulpinus). Sci Rep 2024; 14:4948. [PMID: 38418485 PMCID: PMC10901895 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-54568-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 02/14/2024] [Indexed: 03/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Ophidiomycosis (snake fungal disease) is caused by the fungal pathogen Ophidiomyces ophidiicola, which causes dermal lesions, occasional systemic infections, and in some cases, mortality. To better understand potential conservation implications of ophidiomycosis (i.e., population-level effects), we investigated its impacts on individual fitness in a population of endangered eastern foxsnakes (Pantherophis vulpinus). We tracked 38 foxsnakes over 6 years and quantified body condition, movement patterns, oviposition rates, and survival. Body condition, distance travelled, and oviposition rates were similar between snakes with and without ophidiomycosis. Interestingly, snakes that tested positive for the pathogen travelled farther, suggesting that movement through a greater diversity of habitats increases risk of exposure. Ophidiomycosis did not negatively affect survival, and most apparently infected snakes persisted in a manner comparable to snakes without ophidiomycosis. Only one mortality was directly attributed to ophidiomycosis, although infected snakes were overrepresented in a sample of snakes killed by predators. Overall, our results suggest that ophidiomycosis may have sublethal effects on eastern foxsnakes, but do not suggest direct effects on survival, ovipositioning, or viability of the study population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel M Dillon
- Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9H 7B8, Canada.
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 2Nd Flr DNA Building, 2140 East Bank Dr., Peterborough, ON, K9L 1Z8, Canada.
- Wildlife Preservation Canada, 5420 Highway 6 North, Guelph, ON, N1H 6J2, Canada.
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada.
| | - James E Paterson
- Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9H 7B8, Canada
- Institute for Wetland and Waterfowl Research, Ducks Unlimited Canada, Stonewall, MB, Canada
| | - Pilar Manorome
- Ontario Parks, Ontario Ministry of Environment, Conservation, and Parks, 300 Water Street, 3Rd Floor S, Peterborough, ON, K9J 8M5, Canada
| | - Kyle Ritchie
- Wildlife Preservation Canada, 5420 Highway 6 North, Guelph, ON, N1H 6J2, Canada
| | - Leonard Shirose
- Department of Pathobiology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
- Canadian Wildlife Health Cooperative - Ontario/Nunavut, Guelph, ON, N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Emily Slavik
- Lake Erie Management Unit, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 320 Milo Road, Wheatley, ON, N0P 2P0, Canada
| | - Christina M Davy
- Environmental and Life Sciences Program, Trent University, Peterborough, ON, K9H 7B8, Canada.
- Wildlife Research and Monitoring Section, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, 2Nd Flr DNA Building, 2140 East Bank Dr., Peterborough, ON, K9L 1Z8, Canada.
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, 1125 Colonel By Drive, Ottawa, ON, K1S 5B6, Canada.
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4
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Ding P, Song Z, Liu Y, Halimubieke N, Székely T, Shi L. Nesting Habitat Suitability of the Kentish Plover in the Arid Lands of Xinjiang, China. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:3369. [PMID: 37958123 PMCID: PMC10648522 DOI: 10.3390/ani13213369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2023] [Revised: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding the main ecological factors of the nesting habitat of shorebirds is of great significance in relation to their protection and habitat management. Habitat loss and change due to a lack of water threaten the biodiversity of shorebirds, with impacts likely to be most pronounced in arid lands. We collected the data of 144 nesting sites and 10 ecological factors during the breeding season from April to July each year in 2019 and 2020 in nine river districts in Xinjiang. The MaxEnt model was applied to assess the suitability of nesting habitats for Kentish plovers (Charadrius alexandrinus) in the study area to examine the main factors affecting their nesting habitat. The most suitable nesting habitats are mostly distributed in plain reservoirs in the middle part of the Northern Slope of the Tianshan Mountains, Ebinur Lake and its eastern position in the southwestern Junggar Basin, near Ulungur Lake of the Ulungur river area and the southern Irtysh river area. The distance from water, normalized difference vegetation index, mean temperature of the breeding season, slope, and land use were the main factors affecting the nesting habitat selection of Kentish plovers. It was found that the proportion of suitable nesting habitat protected for the Kentish plovers in the study area was low (851.66 km2), accounting for only 11.02% of the total suitable nesting habitat area. In view of the scarcity and importance of water bodies in arid lands and the lack of protection for Kentish plovers at present, it is suggested to strengthen the conservation and management of the regional shorebirds and their habitats by regulating and optimizing the allocation of water resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Ding
- College of Animal Sciences, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China;
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory for Ecological Adaptation and Evolution of Extreme Environment Biology, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
| | - Zitan Song
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Ecology, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (Z.S.); (Y.L.)
- Comparative Socioecology Group, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, 78467 Konstanz, Germany
| | - Yang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Biocontrol, School of Ecology, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen 518107, China; (Z.S.); (Y.L.)
| | - Naerhulan Halimubieke
- Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA1 7AY, UK; (N.H.); (T.S.)
| | - Tamás Székely
- Milner Centre for Evolution, Department of Biology and Biochemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA1 7AY, UK; (N.H.); (T.S.)
- Department of Evolutionary Zoology and Human Biology, University of Debrecen, H-4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Lei Shi
- College of Animal Sciences, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China;
- Xinjiang Key Laboratory for Ecological Adaptation and Evolution of Extreme Environment Biology, College of Life Sciences, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi 830052, China
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5
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Kikuchi DW, Allen WL, Arbuckle K, Aubier TG, Briolat ES, Burdfield-Steel ER, Cheney KL, Daňková K, Elias M, Hämäläinen L, Herberstein ME, Hossie TJ, Joron M, Kunte K, Leavell BC, Lindstedt C, Lorioux-Chevalier U, McClure M, McLellan CF, Medina I, Nawge V, Páez E, Pal A, Pekár S, Penacchio O, Raška J, Reader T, Rojas B, Rönkä KH, Rößler DC, Rowe C, Rowland HM, Roy A, Schaal KA, Sherratt TN, Skelhorn J, Smart HR, Stankowich T, Stefan AM, Summers K, Taylor CH, Thorogood R, Umbers K, Winters AE, Yeager J, Exnerová A. The evolution and ecology of multiple antipredator defences. J Evol Biol 2023; 36:975-991. [PMID: 37363877 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.14192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2022] [Revised: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 05/07/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Prey seldom rely on a single type of antipredator defence, often using multiple defences to avoid predation. In many cases, selection in different contexts may favour the evolution of multiple defences in a prey. However, a prey may use multiple defences to protect itself during a single predator encounter. Such "defence portfolios" that defend prey against a single instance of predation are distributed across and within successive stages of the predation sequence (encounter, detection, identification, approach (attack), subjugation and consumption). We contend that at present, our understanding of defence portfolio evolution is incomplete, and seen from the fragmentary perspective of specific sensory systems (e.g., visual) or specific types of defences (especially aposematism). In this review, we aim to build a comprehensive framework for conceptualizing the evolution of multiple prey defences, beginning with hypotheses for the evolution of multiple defences in general, and defence portfolios in particular. We then examine idealized models of resource trade-offs and functional interactions between traits, along with evidence supporting them. We find that defence portfolios are constrained by resource allocation to other aspects of life history, as well as functional incompatibilities between different defences. We also find that selection is likely to favour combinations of defences that have synergistic effects on predator behaviour and prey survival. Next, we examine specific aspects of prey ecology, genetics and development, and predator cognition that modify the predictions of current hypotheses or introduce competing hypotheses. We outline schema for gathering data on the distribution of prey defences across species and geography, determining how multiple defences are produced, and testing the proximate mechanisms by which multiple prey defences impact predator behaviour. Adopting these approaches will strengthen our understanding of multiple defensive strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Kikuchi
- Department of Integrative Biology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
- Evolutionary Biology, Universität Bielefeld, Bielefeld, Germany
| | | | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
| | - Thomas G Aubier
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
- Laboratoire Évolution & Diversité Biologique, Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, UMR 5174, CNRS/IRD, Toulouse, France
| | | | - Emily R Burdfield-Steel
- Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Karen L Cheney
- School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Klára Daňková
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marianne Elias
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, Paris, France
- Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Gamboa, Panama
| | - Liisa Hämäläinen
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Marie E Herberstein
- School of Natural Sciences, Macquarie University, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Thomas J Hossie
- Department of Biology, Trent University, Peterborough, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mathieu Joron
- CEFE, Université de Montpellier, CNRS, EPHE, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Krushnamegh Kunte
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Brian C Leavell
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana, USA
| | - Carita Lindstedt
- Department of Forest Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Ugo Lorioux-Chevalier
- Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA), Université de Guyane, CNRS, IFREMER, Cayenne, France
| | - Melanie McClure
- Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA), Université de Guyane, CNRS, IFREMER, Cayenne, France
| | | | - Iliana Medina
- School of BioSciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Viraj Nawge
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Erika Páez
- Institut de Systématique, Evolution, Biodiversité, CNRS, MNHN, Sorbonne Université, EPHE, Université des Antilles, Paris, France
| | - Arka Pal
- National Centre for Biological Sciences, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research, Bengaluru, India
| | - Stano Pekár
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Olivier Penacchio
- School of Psychology and Neuroscience, University of St Andrews, St Andrews, UK
- Computer Vision Center, Computer Science Department, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jan Raška
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tom Reader
- School of Life Sciences, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - Bibiana Rojas
- Department of Interdisciplinary Life Sciences, Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Biology and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Katja H Rönkä
- HiLIFE Helsinki Institute of Life Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Research Programme in Organismal & Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Daniela C Rößler
- Zukunftskolleg, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
- Department of Collective Behavior, Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Candy Rowe
- Institute of Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Hannah M Rowland
- Max Planck Research Group Predators and Toxic Prey, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - Arlety Roy
- Laboratoire Écologie, Évolution, Interactions des Systèmes Amazoniens (LEEISA), Université de Guyane, CNRS, IFREMER, Cayenne, France
| | - Kaitlin A Schaal
- Institute of Integrative Biology, ETH Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | | | - John Skelhorn
- Institute of Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Hannah R Smart
- Hawkesbury Institute of the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Ted Stankowich
- Department of Biological Sciences, California State University, Long Beach, California, USA
| | - Amanda M Stefan
- Department of Biology, Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
| | - Kyle Summers
- Department of Biology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina, USA
| | | | - Rose Thorogood
- HiLIFE Helsinki Institute of Life Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- Research Programme in Organismal & Evolutionary Biology, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
| | - Kate Umbers
- Hawkesbury Institute of the Environment, Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
- School of Science Western Sydney University, Penrith, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Anne E Winters
- Centre for Ecology and Conservation, University of Exeter, Penryn, UK
| | - Justin Yeager
- Grupo de Biodiversidad Medio Ambiente y Salud, Universidad de Las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
| | - Alice Exnerová
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
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6
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Sena AT, Ruane S. Concepts and contentions of coral snake resemblance: Batesian mimicry and its alternatives. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2022. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Venomous coral snakes and non-venomous coral snake lookalikes are often regarded as a classic example of Batesian mimicry, whereby a harmless or palatable organism imitates a harmful or less palatable organism. However, the validity of this claim is questionable. The existing literature regarding coral snake mimicry presents a divisive stance on whether Batesian mimicry is occurring or whether the similarity between snakes is attributable to alternative factors. Here, we compile available literature on coral snake mimicry and assess the support for Batesian mimicry. We find that most of the recent relevant literature (after approximately 2000) supports the Batesian mimicry hypothesis. However, this is not strongly supported by empirical evidence. Potential considerations addressed here for both the Batesian and alternative hypotheses include the function of the colour pattern, predatory learning and the biogeographical distribution of similar snakes. The analyses performed previously by mimicry researchers show that the interpretation of the conditions for mimicry is not consistent throughout the scientific community when applied to coral snake systems. This review focuses on this division and stresses the need to reach an agreement about the adaptive significance of New World coral snakes and their lookalikes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony Thomas Sena
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
- Department of Biological Sciences, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA
| | - Sara Ruane
- Department of Biological Sciences, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ, USA
- Field Museum of Natural History, 1400 South Lake Shore Drive, IL, USA
- Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University Newark, 195 University Ave, Newark, NJ, USA
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7
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Kikuchi DW, Herberstein ME, Barfield M, Holt RD, Mappes J. Why aren't warning signals everywhere? On the prevalence of aposematism and mimicry in communities. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:2446-2460. [PMID: 34128583 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Warning signals are a striking example of natural selection present in almost every ecological community - from Nordic meadows to tropical rainforests, defended prey species and their mimics ward off potential predators before they attack. Yet despite the wide distribution of warning signals, they are relatively scarce as a proportion of the total prey available, and more so in some biomes than others. Classically, warning signals are thought to be governed by positive density-dependent selection, i.e. they succeed better when they are more common. Therefore, after surmounting this initial barrier to their evolution, it is puzzling that they remain uncommon on the scale of the community. Here, we explore factors likely to determine the prevalence of warning signals in prey assemblages. These factors include the nature of prey defences and any constraints upon them, the behavioural interactions of predators with different prey defences, the numerical responses of predators governed by movement and reproduction, the diversity and abundance of undefended alternative prey and Batesian mimics in the community, and variability in other ecological circumstances. We also discuss the macroevolution of warning signals. Our review finds that we have a basic understanding of how many species in some taxonomic groups have warning signals, but very little information on the interrelationships among population abundances across prey communities, the diversity of signal phenotypes, and prey defences. We also have detailed knowledge of how a few generalist predator species forage in artificial laboratory environments, but we know much less about how predators forage in complex natural communities with variable prey defences. We describe how empirical work to address each of these knowledge gaps can test specific hypotheses for why warning signals exhibit their particular patterns of distribution. This will help us to understand how behavioural interactions shape ecological communities.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Kikuchi
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany.,Evolutionary Biology, Universität Bielefeld, Konsequez 45, Bielefeld, 33615, Germany
| | - Marie E Herberstein
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Biological Sciences, Macquarie University, North Ryde, New South Wales, 2109, Australia
| | - Michael Barfield
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611-8525, U.S.A
| | - Robert D Holt
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32611-8525, U.S.A
| | - Johanna Mappes
- Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, Wallotstraße 19, Berlin, Germany.,Organismal and Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, Faculty of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Helsinki University, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Biological and Environmental Science, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FI-40014, Finland
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8
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Li J, Xue Y, Zhang Y, Dong W, Shan G, Sun R, Hacker C, Wu B, Li D. Spatial and temporal activity patterns of Golden takin ( Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi) recorded by camera trapping. PeerJ 2020; 8:e10353. [PMID: 33304652 PMCID: PMC7700736 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.10353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding animals’ migration, distribution and activity patterns is vital for the development of effective conservation action plans; however, such data for many species are lacking. In this study, we used camera trapping to document the spatial and temporal activity patterns of golden takins (Budorcas taxicolor bedfordi) in Changqing National Nature Reserve in the Qinling mountains, China, from April 2014 to October 2017. Our study obtained 3,323 independent detections (from a total of 12,351 detections) during a total camera trapping effort of 93,606 effective camera trap days at 573 sites. Results showed that: (1) the golden takin’s utilization distributions showed seasonal variation, with larger utilization distributions during spring and autumn compared to summer and winter; (2) the species was recorded at the highest elevations in July, and lowest elevations in December, with the species moving to higher-elevations in summer, lower-elevations in spring and autumn; (3) during all four seasons, golden takins showed bimodal activity peaks at dawn and dusk, with activity intensity higher in the second peak than the first, and overall low levels of activity recorded from 20:00–06:00; and (4) there were two annual activity peaks, the first being in April and the second in November, with camera capture rate during these two months higher than in other months, and activity levels in spring and autumn higher than in summer and winter. This study is the first application of camera traps to assess the spatial and temporal activity patterns of golden takins at a population level. Our findings suggest that the proposed national park should be designed to include golden takin habitat and that ongoing consistent monitoring efforts will be crucial to mitigating novel and ongoing threats to the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Li
- Chinese Academy of Forestry, Institute of Desertification Studies, Beijing, China
| | - Yadong Xue
- Chinese Academy of Forestry, Research Institute of Forest Ecology, Environment and Protection, Beijing, China
| | - Yu Zhang
- Chinese Academy of Forestry, Research Institute of Forest Ecology, Environment and Protection, Beijing, China
| | - Wei Dong
- Changqing National Nature Reserve, Hanzhong, China
| | - Guoyu Shan
- Changqing National Nature Reserve, Hanzhong, China
| | - Ruiqian Sun
- Changqing National Nature Reserve, Hanzhong, China
| | - Charlotte Hacker
- Duquesne University, Department of Biological Sciences, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Bo Wu
- Chinese Academy of Forestry, Institute of Desertification Studies, Beijing, China
| | - Diqiang Li
- Chinese Academy of Forestry, Research Institute of Forest Ecology, Environment and Protection, Beijing, China
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Smith JA, Suraci JP, Hunter JS, Gaynor KM, Keller CB, Palmer MS, Atkins JL, Castañeda I, Cherry MJ, Garvey PM, Huebner SE, Morin DJ, Teckentrup L, Weterings MJA, Beaudrot L. Zooming in on mechanistic predator-prey ecology: Integrating camera traps with experimental methods to reveal the drivers of ecological interactions. J Anim Ecol 2020; 89:1997-2012. [PMID: 32441766 DOI: 10.1111/1365-2656.13264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Camera trap technology has galvanized the study of predator-prey ecology in wild animal communities by expanding the scale and diversity of predator-prey interactions that can be analysed. While observational data from systematic camera arrays have informed inferences on the spatiotemporal outcomes of predator-prey interactions, the capacity for observational studies to identify mechanistic drivers of species interactions is limited. Experimental study designs that utilize camera traps uniquely allow for testing hypothesized mechanisms that drive predator and prey behaviour, incorporating environmental realism not possible in the laboratory while benefiting from the distinct capacity of camera traps to generate large datasets from multiple species with minimal observer interference. However, such pairings of camera traps with experimental methods remain underutilized. We review recent advances in the experimental application of camera traps to investigate fundamental mechanisms underlying predator-prey ecology and present a conceptual guide for designing experimental camera trap studies. Only 9% of camera trap studies on predator-prey ecology in our review use experimental methods, but the application of experimental approaches is increasing. To illustrate the utility of camera trap-based experiments using a case study, we propose a study design that integrates observational and experimental techniques to test a perennial question in predator-prey ecology: how prey balance foraging and safety, as formalized by the risk allocation hypothesis. We discuss applications of camera trap-based experiments to evaluate the diversity of anthropogenic influences on wildlife communities globally. Finally, we review challenges to conducting experimental camera trap studies. Experimental camera trap studies have already begun to play an important role in understanding the predator-prey ecology of free-living animals, and such methods will become increasingly critical to quantifying drivers of community interactions in a rapidly changing world. We recommend increased application of experimental methods in the study of predator and prey responses to humans, synanthropic and invasive species, and other anthropogenic disturbances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine A Smith
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
| | - Justin P Suraci
- Environmental Studies Department, Center for Integrated Spatial Research, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA, USA
| | - Jennifer S Hunter
- Hastings Natural History Reservation, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Kaitlyn M Gaynor
- National Center for Ecological Analysis and Synthesis, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - Carson B Keller
- Department of Biology, California State University, Northridge, CA, USA
| | - Meredith S Palmer
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Justine L Atkins
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, USA
| | - Irene Castañeda
- Centre d'Ecologie et des Sciences de la Conservation (CESCO UMR 7204), Sorbonne Universités, MNHN, CNRS, UPMC, Paris, France.,Ecologie, Systématique et Evolution, UMR CNRS 8079, Université Paris-Sud, Orsay Cedex, France
| | - Michael J Cherry
- Caesar Kleberg Wildlife Research Institute, Texas A&M University - Kingsville, Kingsville, TX, USA
| | | | - Sarah E Huebner
- College of Biological Sciences, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN, USA
| | - Dana J Morin
- Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, & Aquaculture, Mississippi State University, Starkville, MS, USA
| | - Lisa Teckentrup
- BioMove Research Training Group, University of Potsdam, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Martijn J A Weterings
- Wildlife Ecology and Conservation Group, Wageningen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands.,Department of Wildlife Management, Van Hall Larenstein University of Applied Sciences, Leeuwarden, The Netherlands
| | - Lydia Beaudrot
- Department of BioSciences, Program in Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Rice University, Houston, TX, USA
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10
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Tetzlaff SJ, Estrada A, DeGregorio BA, Sperry JH. Identification of Factors Affecting Predation Risk for Juvenile Turtles using 3D Printed Models. Animals (Basel) 2020; 10:ani10020275. [PMID: 32054027 PMCID: PMC7070983 DOI: 10.3390/ani10020275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2020] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 02/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Although it is widely accepted that juvenile turtles experience high levels of predation, such events are rarely observed, providing limited evidence regarding predator identities and how juvenile habitat selection and availability of sensory cues to predators affects predation risk. We placed three-dimensional printed models resembling juvenile box turtles (Terrapene carolina) across habitats commonly utilized by the species at three sites within their geographical range and monitored models with motion-triggered cameras. To explore how the presence or absence of visual and olfactory cues affected predator interactions with models, we employed a factorial design where models were either exposed or concealed and either did or did not have juvenile box turtle scent applied on them. Predators interacted with 18% of models during field trials. Nearly all interactions were by mesopredators (57%) and rodents (37%). Mesopredators were more likely to attack models than rodents; most (76%) attacks occurred by raccoons (Procyon lotor). Interactions by mesopredators were more likely to occur in wetlands than edges, and greater in edges than grasslands. Mesopredators were less likely to interact with models as surrounding vegetation height increased. Rodents were more likely to interact with models that were closer to woody structure and interacted with exposed models more than concealed ones, but model exposure had no effect on interactions by mesopredators. Scent treatment appeared to have no influence on interactions by either predator group. Our results suggest raccoons can pose high predation risk for juvenile turtles (although rodents could also be important predators) and habitat features at multiple spatial scales affect predator-specific predation risk. Factors affecting predation risk for juveniles are important to consider in management actions such as habitat alteration, translocation, or predator control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sasha J. Tetzlaff
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Champaign, IL 61822, USA
- Correspondence:
| | - Alondra Estrada
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Brett A. DeGregorio
- U.S. Geological Survey, University of Arkansas Fish and Wildlife Cooperative Research Unit, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
| | - Jinelle H. Sperry
- Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- U.S. Army Construction Engineering Research Laboratory, Champaign, IL 61822, USA
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11
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Arias M, Elias M, Andraud C, Berthier S, Gomez D. Transparency improves concealment in cryptically coloured moths. J Evol Biol 2019; 33:247-252. [PMID: 31643116 DOI: 10.1111/jeb.13560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Predation is a ubiquitous and strong selective pressure on living organisms. Transparency is a predation defence widespread in water but rare on land. Some Lepidoptera display transparent patches combined with already cryptic opaque patches. A recent study showed that transparency reduced detectability of aposematic prey with conspicuous patches. However, whether transparency has any effect at reducing detectability of already cryptic prey is still unknown. We conducted field predation experiments with free avian predators where we monitored and compared survival of a fully opaque grey artificial form (cryptic), a form including transparent windows and a wingless artificial butterfly body. Survival of the transparent forms was similar to that of wingless bodies and higher than that of fully opaque forms, suggesting a reduction of detectability conferred by transparency. This is the first evidence that transparency decreases detectability in cryptic terrestrial prey. Future studies should explore the organization of transparent and opaque patches in animals and their interplay on survival, as well as the costs and other potential benefits associated with transparency on land.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Arias
- EPHE, IRD, CEFE, Univ. Montpellier, Univ. Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France.,ISYEB, CNRS, MNHN, EPHE, Sorbonne Univ., Univ. Antilles, Paris, France
| | - Marianne Elias
- ISYEB, CNRS, MNHN, EPHE, Sorbonne Univ., Univ. Antilles, Paris, France
| | | | | | - Doris Gomez
- EPHE, IRD, CEFE, Univ. Montpellier, Univ. Paul Valéry Montpellier 3, Montpellier, France.,INSP, CNRS, Sorbonne Univ, Paris, France
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Akcali CK, Pérez-Mendoza HA, Kikuchi DW, Pfennig DW. Multiple models generate a geographical mosaic of resemblance in a Batesian mimicry complex. Proc Biol Sci 2019; 286:20191519. [PMID: 31530146 PMCID: PMC6784714 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2019.1519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Batesian mimics-benign species that receive protection from predation by resembling a dangerous species-often occur with multiple model species. Here, we examine whether geographical variation in the number of local models generates geographical variation in mimic-model resemblance. In areas with multiple models, selection might be relaxed or even favour imprecise mimicry relative to areas with only one model. We test the prediction that model-mimic match should vary with the number of other model species in a broadly distributed snake mimicry complex where a mimic and a model co-occur both with and without other model species. We found that the mimic resembled its model more closely when they were exclusively sympatric than when they were sympatric with other model species. Moreover, in regions with multiple models, mimic-model resemblance was positively correlated with the resemblance between the model and other model species. However, contrary to predictions, free-ranging natural predators did not attack artificial replicas of imprecise mimics more often when only a single model was present. Taken together, our results suggest that multiple models might generate a geographical mosaic in the degree of phenotype matching between Batesian mimics and their models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher K. Akcali
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
- North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Hibraim Adán Pérez-Mendoza
- Laboratorio de Ecología Evolutiva y Conservación de Anfibios y Reptiles, Facultad de Estudios Superiores Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de Mexico, Tlalneplanta, Mexico
| | - David W. Kikuchi
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - David W. Pfennig
- Department of Biology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA
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