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Zeng Y, Xiong Y, Yang C, He N, He J, Luo W, Chen Y, Zeng X, Wu Z. Investigation of Parasitic Infection in Crocodile Lizards ( Shinisaurus crocodilurus) Using High-Throughput Sequencing. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12202726. [PMID: 36290112 PMCID: PMC9597849 DOI: 10.3390/ani12202726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2022] [Revised: 10/03/2022] [Accepted: 10/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The highly endangered crocodile lizard (Shinisaurus crocodilurus) continues to be impacted by disease, especially in captive breeding populations. In this paper, based on high-throughput sequencing, we investigated parasitic infections in captive and wild crocodile lizard populations in the Daguishan National Nature Reserve and Guangdong Luokeng Shinisaurus crocodilurus National Nature Reserve. The results show that the overall parasitic infection rate in crocodile lizards was 33.33% (23/69). Four parasite genera were detected, including Eimeria, Cryptosporidium, Nematopsis, and Acanthamoeba, with infection rates of 15.94% (11/69), 17.39% (12/69), 7.25% (5/69), and 4.35% (3/69), respectively. Significant differences in the infection rate were found between the different parasite species (χ2 = 8.54, p < 0.05, chi-squared test). The parasitic infection rates in the captive and wild populations were 39.29% (22/56) and 7.69% (1/13), respectively, which were significantly different (p < 0.05, Fisher’s exact test). However, no significant differences in the infection rates of the four parasite genera were found between the captive and wild populations (p > 0.05, Fisher’s exact test). The parasitic infection rates in Daguishan and Luokeng were 34.09% (15/44) and 32.00% (8/25), respectively, which were not significantly different (p > 0.05, Fisher’s exact test). However, significant differences in terms of species were found in the two reserves (p < 0.01, Fisher’s exact test). Only Cryptosporidium infection showed a significant difference between the two regions (p < 0.01, Fisher’s exact test). Our results suggest that captive crocodile lizards are more susceptible to parasitic diseases than wild crocodile lizards and that Cryptosporidium infection varies by geographical region. This study provides basic information about the parasites of endangered crocodile lizards, as well as a reference for disease control and conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yongru Zeng
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection, Guangxi Normal University, Ministry of Education, Guilin 541004, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, College of Life Science, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China
| | - Yi Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection, Guangxi Normal University, Ministry of Education, Guilin 541004, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, College of Life Science, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China
| | - Chunsheng Yang
- Daguishan National Nature Reserve for Crocodile Lizards, Hezhou 542824, China
| | - Nan He
- Guangdong Luokeng Shinisaurus crocodilurus National Nature Reserve, Shaoguan 512100, China
| | - Jiasong He
- Daguishan National Nature Reserve for Crocodile Lizards, Hezhou 542824, China
| | - Wenxian Luo
- Daguishan National Nature Reserve for Crocodile Lizards, Hezhou 542824, China
| | - Yaohuan Chen
- Daguishan National Nature Reserve for Crocodile Lizards, Hezhou 542824, China
| | - Xiaochen Zeng
- Daguishan National Nature Reserve for Crocodile Lizards, Hezhou 542824, China
| | - Zhengjun Wu
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection, Guangxi Normal University, Ministry of Education, Guilin 541004, China
- Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, College of Life Science, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin 541004, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-135-1783-6091
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Xiong Y, Wu Q, Qin X, Yang C, Luo S, He J, Cheng Q, Wu Z. Identification of Pseudomonas aeruginosa From the Skin Ulcer Disease of Crocodile Lizards ( Shinisaurus crocodilurus) and Probiotics as the Control Measure. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:850684. [PMID: 35529836 PMCID: PMC9069141 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.850684] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
The crocodile lizard (Shinisaurus crocodilurus) is an endangered ancient reptile species. Captive breeding is an important conservation measure for the potential restoration and recovery of their wild populations. However, a skin ulcer disease caused by an unknown pathogen has become a serious threat to captive breeding individuals. In the current study, based on microbial isolation, we identified Pseudomonas aeruginosa as the dominant pathogen in skin ulcer disease. Chinese skinks (Plestiodon chinensis) were used to verify the pathogenicity of P. aeruginosa in skin ulcer disease in vivo. As expected, subcutaneous inoculation of P. aeruginosa induced skin disease in healthy skinks and P. aeruginosa was re-isolated from the induced skin ulcers. Therefore, P. aeruginosa, an opportunistic and ubiquitous pathogen that causes a wide range of infections, appears to be the main pathogen of the skin disease affecting crocodile lizards. In the aquaculture industry, probiotics are widely used in the prevention and control of animal diseases caused by such pathogens. Here, we administered probiotics to the breeding crocodile lizards for 6 months. The three experiment groups treated with different kinds of probiotics showed significance at controlling case incidence. Three of the four groups treated with probiotics showed significant disease prevention (Effective Microorganisms mixed probiotics P = 0.0374; Double-dose Effective Microorganisms, P = 0.0299; Bacillus subtilis, P = 0.0140, T-test), and CFUs in the water of the breeding enclosures were also inhibited after probiotics usage (P < 0.001, T-test). Our study demonstrated the role of Pseudomonas aeruginosa in development of skin ulcer disease of crocodile lizards in a local zoo and offered the probiotic-based method for control measurements, which would be of benefit for the conservation of endangered reptiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection, Ministry of Education, Guilin, China.,Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, College of Life Science, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, China
| | - Qiong Wu
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection, Ministry of Education, Guilin, China.,Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, College of Life Science, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, China
| | - Xudong Qin
- Daguishan National Nature Reserve for Crocodile Lizards, Hezhou, China
| | - Chengsheng Yang
- Daguishan National Nature Reserve for Crocodile Lizards, Hezhou, China
| | - Shuyi Luo
- Daguishan National Nature Reserve for Crocodile Lizards, Hezhou, China
| | - Jiasong He
- Daguishan National Nature Reserve for Crocodile Lizards, Hezhou, China
| | - Qingzhen Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection, Ministry of Education, Guilin, China.,Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, College of Life Science, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, China
| | - Zhengjun Wu
- Key Laboratory of Ecology of Rare and Endangered Species and Environmental Protection, Ministry of Education, Guilin, China.,Guangxi Key Laboratory of Rare and Endangered Animal Ecology, College of Life Science, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, China
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Jiang H, Luo S, Zhou J, Huang W, Li L, Zhang X, He J, Chen J. Skin Microbiota Was Altered in Crocodile Lizards (Shinisaurus crocodilurus) With Skin Ulcer. Front Vet Sci 2022; 9:817490. [PMID: 35237680 PMCID: PMC8884271 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2022.817490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/11/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Skin diseases commonly affect reptiles, but their relationships to the closely related skin microbiome are not well-understood. In recent years, both the wild and captive populations of the crocodile lizard, a Class I protected endangered animal in China, have suffered serious skin diseases that hamper the rescue and release projects for their conservation. This study conducted a detailed prevalence investigation of a major dermatosis characterized by foot skin ulcer in crocodile lizards. It should be noticed that skin ulcer has been prevalent in both captive and wild populations. There was positive correlation between skin ulcer and temperature, while no significant relationship between skin ulcer and humidity, sex, and age. We further studied the relationship between skin ulcer and the skin microbiota using meta-taxonomics. Results showed that the skin microbiota of crocodile lizards was significantly different from those of the environmental microbial communities, and that skin microbiota had a significant relationship with skin ulcer despite the impact of environment. Both bacterial and fungal communities on the ulcerated skin were significantly changed, which was characterized by lower community diversity and different dominant microbes. Our findings provide an insight into the relationship between skin microbiota and skin disease in reptile, serving as a reference for dermatological etiology in wildlife conservation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haiying Jiang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuyi Luo
- Guangxi Daguishan Crocodile Lizard National Nature Reserve, Hezhou, China
| | - Jiabin Zhou
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenzhong Huang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Linmiao Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiujuan Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiasong He
- Guangxi Daguishan Crocodile Lizard National Nature Reserve, Hezhou, China
| | - Jinping Chen
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Animal Conservation and Resource Utilization, Guangdong Public Laboratory of Wild Animal Conservation and Utilization, Institute of Zoology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Jinping Chen
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Liguori BL, Ossiboff RJ, Stacy NI, Graham EA, Oliveira LJ, Childress AL, Giglio RF, Hamel PS, Turner RC, Alexander AB, Christman JE, Heard DJ, Wellehan JFX. AUSTWICKIA CHELONAE IN A WILD GOPHER TORTOISE (GOPHERUS POLYPHEMUS) AND EVIDENCE OF POSITIVE SELECTION ON THE DIPHTHERIA-LIKE TOXIN GENE. J Wildl Dis 2022; 58:1-7. [PMID: 34780647 DOI: 10.7589/jwd-d-20-00223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Austwickia (Dermatophilus) chelonae is a filamentous, Gram-positive Actinobacteria in the Dermatophilaceae family. It has caused fatal granulomatous disease in diverse captive reptile species on three continents, but its presence in wild or free-ranging populations was unknown. An adult female gopher tortoise (Gopherus polyphemus) was presented euhydrated, but cachectic and infested with ticks, with two firm, encapsulated masses over the cranioventral neck and right stifle. The tortoise had moderate nonregenerative anemia and evidence of inflammation; plasma biochemistry data was within normal limits. Fine needle aspirate of the neck lesion revealed abundant necrosis and aggregates of cocci. Computed tomography delineated the masses and revealed an additional mass adjacent to the left zygomatic bone. After surgical excision, histology identified chronic granulomas with intralesional filamentous bacteria. Pan-bacterial 16S rRNA PCR and sequencing of the masses identified A. chelonae. Despite treatment with oxytetracycline and ceftazidime, the tortoise deteriorated and was euthanatized. An esophageal lesion consistent with A. chelonae was seen on postmortem examination, although it was determined that the tortoise ultimately succumbed to fungal pneumonia caused by Metarhizium robertsii, an entomopathogenic biotoxin sprayed as insect control. This case reveals A. chelonae is present in free-ranging chelonians in North America. This organism produces a toxin gene similar to diphtheria toxin, one of the most potent known biotoxins, which has not been previously identified outside the genus Corynebacterium. Novel PCR primers were designed for the toxin and rpoB genes, which were amplified and sequenced from two cases and compared with two available genomes. Selection analysis revealed that the toxin gene is under positive selection, which implies it interacts significantly with the immune system, making it a good candidate for immunodiagnostic test development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany L Liguori
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Robert J Ossiboff
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Nicole I Stacy
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Erin A Graham
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Lilian J Oliveira
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - April L Childress
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Robson F Giglio
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Philip S Hamel
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Rachel C Turner
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Amy B Alexander
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Jane E Christman
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - Darryl J Heard
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
| | - James F X Wellehan
- Department of Comparative, Diagnostic, and Population Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Florida, 2015 SW 16th Ave., Gainesville, Florida 32608, USA
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Latney LV, Wellehan JFX. Selected Emerging Infectious Diseases of Squamata: An Update. Vet Clin North Am Exot Anim Pract 2020; 23:353-371. [PMID: 32327041 DOI: 10.1016/j.cvex.2020.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
This article details emerging infectious diseases that have devastating impacts on captive and wild squamates. Treatment advances have been attempted for Cryptosporidium infections in squamates. Gram-positive bacteria, Devriesea agamarum and Austwickia chelonae, are contributing to severe disease in captive and now in wild reptiles, some critically endangered. Nannizziposis, Paranannizziopsis, and Ophidiomyces continue to cause fatal disease as primary pathogens in wild and captive populations of squamates and sphenodontids. Nidovirus, bornavirus, paramyxovirus, sunshine virus, and arenavirus have emerged to be significant causes of neurorespiratory disease in snakes. Controlled studies evaluating environmental stability, disinfection, transmission control, and treatment are lacking.
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Affiliation(s)
- La'Toya V Latney
- Avian and Exotic Medicine & Surgery, The Animal Medical Center, 610 East 62nd Street, New York, NY 10065, USA.
| | - James F X Wellehan
- Zoological Medicine Service, University of Florida College of Veterinary Medicine, PO Box 100126, 2015 Southwest 16th Avenue, Gainesville, FL 32608-0125, USA
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