Comparison of diversity and composition of macrofungal species between intensive mushroom harvesting and non-harvesting areas in Oaxaca, Mexico

Variation in traditional knowledge of culturally important macromycete species among three indigenous communities of Oaxaca, Mexico

BACKGROUND

For centuries, wild mushrooms have been a forest resource of significant cultural value in several ethnic groups worldwide. In Mexico, extensive traditional knowledge on the use of fungal resources has been developed and deeply rooted. Mexico is the second country in the world in which the most species of wild mushroom are consumed, and it is considered a pioneer in ethnomycology. Nonetheless, there are still many indigenous groups in this country that have not been studied from an ethnomycological approach. The present study aimed to record the traditional knowledge on wild mushrooms in three indigenous groups of the state of Oaxaca, Mexico, and assess the variation in this knowledge within and across the studied groups.

METHODS

The data were recorded from April to October 2022 within three communities belonging to the indigenous groups Chatino, Chontal, and Chinanteco. Through 84 interviews, information related to their knowledge of wild mushrooms was obtained. The cultural significance index of wild edible mushrooms was calculated for each community. Regression analyses, analysis of variance and covariance, t test, and non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis were performed to assess the distribution of traditional knowledge in the communities.

RESULTS

A total of 32 culturally important mushroom species were recorded for the three indigenous groups (30 edible, 2 medicinal); 23 used by Chatinos, 16 by Chontales, and 6 by Chinantecos. Only Chatinos and Chinantecos use wild mushrooms in medicine. The cultural significance of wild edible mushrooms differed among groups. Traditional knowledge about wild mushrooms declines when the level of schooling increases and age decreases, especially in the Chatino group. This knowledge distributes more homogeneously in the Chontal and Chinanteco groups. Their age determines the difference in knowledge between men and women.

CONCLUSION

Documenting how traditional knowledge differs among ethnic groups is relevant for preserving cultural and biological diversity. Factors such as level of schooling and age can affect traditional knowledge of wild mushrooms, but the effects of these factors vary within and across communities. Conducting studies encompassing a broader range of variables is of interest for a better understanding of the human-mushroom relationship.

Green trees preservation: A sustainable source of valuable mushrooms for Ethiopian local communities

In Ethiopia, Pinus radiata and Pinus patula are extensively cultivated. Both plantations frequently serve as habitats for edible fungi, providing economic and ecological importance. Our study aims were: (i) to investigate how plantation age and tree species influence the variety of edible fungi and sporocarps production; (ii) to determine edaphic factors contributing to variations in sporocarps composition; and (iii) to establish a relationship between the most influencing edaphic factors and the production of valuable edible mushrooms for both plantation types. Sporocarps were collected weekly from permanent plots (100 m2) established in 5-, 14-, and 28-year-old stands of both species in 2020. From each plot, composite soil samples were also collected to determine explanatory edaphic variables for sporocarps production and composition. A total of 24 edible species, comprising 21 saprophytic and three ectomycorrhizal ones were identified. Agaricus campestroides, Morchella sp., Suillus luteus, Lepista sordida, and Tylopilus niger were found in both plantations. Sporocarp yields showed significant variation, with the highest mean production in 28-year-old stands of both Pinus stands. Differences in sporocarps variety were also observed between the two plantations, influenced by factors such as pH, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, and cation exchange capacity. Bovista dermoxantha, Coprinellus domesticus, and A. campestroides made contributions to the variety. The linear regression models indicated that the abundance of specific fungi was significantly predicted by organic matter. This insight into the nutrient requirements of various fungal species can inform for a better plantation management to produce both wood and non-wood forest products. Additionally, higher sporocarps production in older stands suggests that retaining patches of mature trees after the final cut can enhance fungal habitat, promoting diversity and yield. Thus, implementing this approach could provide supplementary income opportunities from mushroom sales and enhance the economic outputs of plantations, while mature trees could serve as a source of fungal inoculum for new plantations.

Mushrooms as future generation healthy foods

The potential of edible mushrooms as an unexploited treasure trove, although rarely included in known food guidelines, is highlighted. Their role in shielding people against the side effects of an unhealthy stylish diet is reviewed. Mushrooms complement the human diet with various bioactive molecules not identified or deficient in foodstuffs of plant and animal sources, being considered a functional food for the prevention of several human diseases. Mushrooms have been widely used as medicinal products for more than 2,000 years, but globally the potential field of use of wild mushrooms has been untapped. There is a broad range of edible mushrooms which remain poorly identified or even unreported which is a valuable pool as sources of bioactive compounds for biopharma utilization and new dietary supplements. Some unique elements of mushrooms and their role in preventative healthcare are emphasized, through their positive impact on the immune system. The potential of mushrooms as antiviral, anti-inflammatory, anti-neoplastic, and other health concerns is discussed. Mushrooms incorporate top sources of non-digestible oligosaccharides, and ergothioneine, which humans are unable to synthesize, the later a unique antioxidant, cytoprotective, and anti-inflammatory element, with therapeutic potential, approved by world food agencies. The prebiotic activity of mushrooms beneficially affects gut homeostasis performance and the balance of gut microbiota is enhanced. Several recent studies on neurological impact and contribution to the growth of nerve and brain cells are mentioned. Indeed, mushrooms as functional foods' nutraceuticals are presently regarded as next-generation foods, supporting health and wellness, and are promising prophylactic or therapeutic agents.

Forest Type and Site Conditions Influence the Diversity and Biomass of Edible Macrofungal Species in Ethiopia

Ethiopian forests are rich in valuable types of non-wood forest products, including mushrooms. However, despite their nutritional, economic, and ecological importance, wild edible mushrooms have been given little attention and are rarely documented in Ethiopia. In this study, we assessed mushroom production levels in natural and plantation forests and the influence of climate and environmental variables on mushroom production. Sporocarps were sampled weekly from July to August 2019 at a set of permanent plots (100 m²) in both forest systems. We analyzed 63 plots to quantify sporocarp species’ richness and fresh weight as well as to elucidate the degree of influence of forest types and site conditions, including soil and climate. Morphological analyses were used to identify fungi. In total, we recorded 64 wild edible fungal species belonging to 31 genera and 21 families from the plots established in the natural and plantation forests. A significantly greater total number of edible fungi were collected from natural forests (n = 40 species) than from plantations. Saprotrophs (92.19%) were the dominant guild whereas ectomycorrhizal fungi represented only 6.25% of species. Ecologically and economically important fungal species such as Agaricus campestroides, Tylopilus niger, Suillus luteus, Tricholoma portentosum, and Morchella americana were collected. The sporocarp yield obtained from plantation forests (2097.57 kg ha⁻¹ yr^–1) was significantly greater than that obtained from natural forests (731.18 kg ha⁻¹ yr^–1). The fungal community composition based on sporocarp production was mainly correlated with the organic matter, available phosphorus, and total nitrogen content of the soil, and with the daily minimum temperature during collection. Accordingly, improving edible species’ richness and sporocarp production by maintaining ecosystem integrity represents a way of adding economic value to forests and maintaining biological diversity, while providing wood and non-wood forest products; we propose that this approach is imperative for managing Ethiopian forests.

Wild Boar Effects on Fungal Abundance and Guilds from Sporocarp Sampling in a Boreal Forest Ecosystem

Simple Summary

Native wild boar populations are expanding across Europe, causing concern due to their significant soil disturbances and considerable impact on ecosystems. However, little is known about how wild boar activities affect other organisms. This study investigated the effects of wild boars on the abundance of fungal sporocarps and their respective fungal guilds (i.e., symbiotic, saprophytic and pathogenic) in boreal forests in Sweden. We selected 11 forested sites in central Sweden: six with and five without the presence of wild boar. We determined the presence or absence of wild boar and rooting intensity at each site. Simultaneously, we investigated the abundance of fungal sporocarps and their fungal guilds. We found that the presence of wild boar and rooting intensity were associated with the abundance of fungal sporocarps. Wild boar rooting was positively correlated with saprotrophic fungi and negatively with symbiotic fungi. Pathogenic fungi were more abundant in plots with no rooting but in the presence of wild boar. We conclude that wild boar represents a recurrent disturbance agent and, based on sporocarp abundance, could eventually affect entire fungal populations.

Abstract

Native wild boar (Sus scrofa) populations are expanding across Europe. This is cause for concern in some areas where overabundant populations impact natural ecosystems and adjacent agronomic systems. To better manage the potential for impacts, managers require more information about how the species may affect other organisms. For example, information regarding the effect of wild boar on soil fungi for management application is lacking. Soil fungi play a fundamental role in ecosystems, driving essential ecological functions; acting as mycorrhizal symbionts, sustaining plant nutrition and providing defense; as saprotrophs, regulating the organic matter decomposition; or as plant pathogens, regulating plant fitness and survival. During autumn (Sep–Nov) 2018, we investigated the effects of wild boar (presence/absence and rooting intensity) on the abundance (number of individuals) of fungal sporocarps and their functional guilds (symbiotic, saprotrophic and pathogenic). We selected eleven forested sites (400–500 × 150–200 m) in central Sweden; six with and five without the presence of wild boar. Within each forest, we selected one transect (200 m long), and five plots (2 × 2 m each) for sites without wild boar, and ten plots for sites with boars (five within and five outside wild boar disturbances), to determine the relationship between the intensity of rooting and the abundance of sporocarps for three fungal guilds. We found that the presence of wild boar and rooting intensity were associated with the abundance of sporocarps. Interestingly, this relationship varied depending on the fungal guild analyzed, where wild boar rooting had a positive correlation with saprophytic sporocarps and a negative correlation with symbiotic sporocarps. Pathogenic fungi, in turn, were more abundant in undisturbed plots (no rooting) but located in areas with the presence of wild boar. Our results indicate that wild boar activities can potentially regulate the abundance of fungal sporocarps, with different impacts on fungal guilds. Therefore, wild boar can affect many essential ecosystem functions driven by soil fungi in boreal forests, such as positive effects on energy rotation and in creating mineral availability to plants, which could lead to increased diversity of plants in boreal forests.

Diversity Patterns of Macrofungi in Xerothermic Grasslands from the Nida Basin (Małopolska Upland, Southern Poland): A Case Study

Simple Summary

Southern Poland exhibits a diverse array of habitats for fungi; however, little is known about the richness and diversity of macrofungi occurring in xerothermic grasslands known as dry grasslands. Xerothermic grasslands with their unique flora and fauna are among the most valuable and, at the same time, most severely threatened habitats of Europe’s natural environment. Studies on such habitats were conducted in southern Poland during the period of 2010 to 2013.

Abstract

Macrofungal communities were investigated in seven plant associations of xerothermic grasslands in the Nida Basin located in the Małopolska Upland of southern Poland. Designation of associations at selected study sites was based on phytosociological relevés using the Braun-Blanquet method. During the years 2010–2013, we studied the diversity and distribution of macrofungi in dry grasslands, where 164 species of basidio- and ascomycetes were recovered. We determined the properties of the studied fungal communities and habitat preferences of individual species found in the analyzed xerothermic plant associations using ecological indicators for macrofungi according to Ellenberg indicator values. Diversity patterns of fungal communities in xerothermic grasslands are strongly influenced by various environmental factors. In our study, we focused on recording the fruiting bodies of all macrofungi and the proportion of each species in the study communities, as well as possible identification of the most likely indicator species for particular habitats. We found significant differences for two of the seven associations analyzed, namely Thalictro-Salvietum pratensis and Inuletum ensifoliae. However, based on Ellenberg indicator values for fungi, it is not possible to clearly define fungi as indicator species.

Metabarcoding analysis of the soil fungal community to aid the conservation of underexplored church forests in Ethiopia

Most of the Dry Afromontane forests in the northern part of Ethiopia are located around church territories and, hence, are called church forests. These forests are biodiversity islands and provide key ecosystem services to local communities. A previous study of church forest fungal species was based on sporocarp collections. However, to obtain a complete picture of the fungal community, the total fungal community present in the soil needs to be analyzed. This information is important to integrate church forests into global biodiversity conservation strategies and to understand what actions are required to conserve church forests and their biological components, including fungi, which are known for their exceptionally high diversity levels. We assessed soil fungal communities in three church forests using ITS2 rDNA metabarcoding. In total, 5152 fungal operational taxonomic units representing 16 fungal phyla were identified. Saprotrophs followed by ectomycorrhizal fungi and animal pathogens dominated fungal communities. Significant differences in diversity and richness were observed between forests. Non-metric multidimensional scaling confirmed that fungal community composition differed in each forest. The composition was influenced by climatic, edaphic, vegetation, and spatial variables. Linear relationships were found between tree basal area and the abundance of total fungi and trophic groups. Forest management strategies that consider cover, tree density, enrichment plantations of indigenous host tree species, and environmental factors would offer suitable habitats for fungal diversity, production, and function in these forest systems. The application of the baseline information obtained in this study could assist other countries with similar forest conservation issues due to deforestation and forest fragmentation.

Impact of urbanization on functional diversity in macromycete communities along an urban ecosystem in Southwest Mexico

Macromycetes are a group of fungi characterized by the production of fruit bodies and are highly relevant in most terrestrial ecosystems as pathogens, mutualists, and organic matter decomposers. Habitat transformation can drastically alter macromycete communities and diminish the contribution of these organisms to ecosystem functioning; however, knowledge on the effect of urbanization on macrofungal communities is scarce. Diversity metrics based on functional traits of macromycete species have shown to be valuable tools to predict how species contribute to ecosystem functionality since traits determine the performance of species in ecosystems. The aim of this study was to assess patterns of species richness, functional diversity, and composition of macrofungi in an urban ecosystem in Southwest Mexico, and to identify microclimatic, environmental, and urban factors related to these patterns in order to infer the effect of urbanization on macromycete communities. We selected four oak forests along an urbanization gradient and established a permanent sampling area of 0.1 ha at each site. Macromycete sampling was carried out every week from June to October 2017. The indices used to measure functional diversity were functional richness (FRic), functional divergence (FDig), and functional evenness (FEve). The metric used to assess variation of macrofungal ecological function along the study area was the functional value. We recorded a total of 134 macromycete species and 223 individuals. Our results indicated a decline of species richness with increased urbanization level related mainly to microclimatic variables, and a high turnover of species composition among study sites, which appears to be related to microclimatic and urbanization variables. FRic decreased with urbanization level, indicating that some of the available resources in the niche space within the most urbanized sites are not being utilized. FDig increased with urbanization, which suggests a high degree of niche differentiation among macromycete species within communities in urbanized areas. FEve did not show notable differences along the urbanization gradient, indicating few variations in the distribution of abundances within the occupied sections of the niche space. Similarly, the functional value was markedly higher in the less urbanized site, suggesting greater performance of functional guilds in that area. Our findings suggest that urbanization has led to a loss of macromycete species and a decrease in functional diversity, causing some sections of the niche space to be hardly occupied and available resources to be under-utilized, which could, to a certain extent, affect ecosystem functioning and stability.

Relating macrofungal diversity and forest characteristics in boreal forests in China: Conservation effects, inter-forest-type variations, and association decoupling

QUESTION

How conservation and forest type affect macrofungal compositional diversity is not well understood. Even less is known about macrofungal associations with plants, soils, and geoclimatic conditions.

LOCATION

Southern edge of boreal forest distribution in China, named as Huzhong Nature Reserve.

METHODS

We surveyed a total of 72 plots for recording macrofungi, plants, and topography in 2015 and measured soil organic carbon, nitrogen, and bulk density. Effects of conservation and forest types on macrofungi and plants were compared, and their associations were decoupled by structural equation modeling (SEM) and redundancy ordination (RDA).

RESULTS

Conservation and forest type largely shaped macrofungal diversity. Most of the macrofungal traits declined with the conservation intensities or peaked at the middle conservation region. Similarly, 91% of macrofungal traits declined or peaked in the middle succession stage of birch-larch forests. Forest conservation resulted in the observation of sparse, larch-dominant, larger tree forests. Moreover, the soil outside the Reserve had more water, higher fertility, and lower bulk density, showing miscellaneous wood forest preference. There is a complex association between conservation site characteristics, soils, plants, and macrofungi. Variation partitioning showed that soil N was the top-one factor explaining the macrofungal variations (10%). As shown in SEM coefficients, conservation effect to macrofungi (1.1-1.2, p < .05) was like those from soils (1.2-1.6, p < .05), but much larger than the effect from plants (0.01-0.14, p > .10). For all tested macrofungal traits, 89%-97% of their variations were from soils, and 5%-21% were from conservation measures, while plants compensated 1%-10% of these effects. Our survey found a total of 207 macrofungal species, and 65 of them are new updates in this Reserve, indicating data shortage for the macrofungi list here.

CONCLUSION

Our findings provide new data for the joint conservation of macrofungi and plant communities, highlighting the crucial importance of soil matrix for macrofungal conservation in boreal forests.

Retention of Matured Trees to Conserve Fungal Diversity and Edible Sporocarps from Short-Rotation Pinus radiata Plantations in Ethiopia

This study is conducted in the short-rotation plantations from the Afromontane Region of Ethiopia. Sporocarps were sampled weekly in a set of permanent plots (100 m²) in young, medium-aged, and mature Pinus radiata (Don) plantations. Fungal richness, diversity, and sporocarp yields were estimated. Composite soil samples were also collected from each plot to determine explanatory edaphic variables for taxa composition. We collected 92 fungal taxa, of which 8% were ectomycorrhizal (ECM). Taxa richness, the Shannon diversity index, and ECM species richness were higher in mature stands. Interestingly, 26% of taxa were classified as edible. Sporocarp yield showed increasing trends towards matured stands. OM and C/N ratio significantly affected fungal composition and sporocarp production. The deliberate retention of mature trees in a patch form rather than clear felling of the plantations could be useful to conserve and promote fungal diversity and production, including valuable taxa such as Morchella, Suillus, and Tylopilus in older stands. This approach has important implications for forest floor microhabitats, which are important for macrofungal occurrence and production. Thus, this strategy could improve the economic outputs of these plantations in the Afromontane Region, while the mature trees could serve as a bridge for providing fungal inocula to the new plantations.

Species Prioritization Based on Spectral Dissimilarity: A Case Study of Polyporoid Fungal Species

Biological species collections are critical for natural product drug discovery programs. However, prioritization of target species in massive collections remains difficult. Here, we introduce an untargeted metabolomics-based prioritization workflow that uses MS/MS molecular networking to estimate scaffold-level distribution. As a demonstration, we applied the workflow to 40 polyporoid fungal species. Nine species were prioritized as candidates based on the chemical structural and compositional similarity (CSCS) metric. Most of the selected species showed relatively higher richness and uniqueness of metabolites than those of the others. Cryptoporus volvatus, one of the prioritized species, was investigated further. The chemical profiles of the extracts of C. volvatus culture and fruiting bodies were compared, and it was shown that derivative-level diversity was higher in the fruiting bodies; meanwhile, scaffold-level diversity was similar. This showed that the compounds found from a cultured fungus can also be isolated in wild mushrooms. Targeted isolation of the fruiting body extract yielded three unknown (1-3) and six known (4-9) cryptoporic acid derivatives, which are drimane-type sesquiterpenes with isocitric acid moieties that have been reported in this species. Cryptoporic acid T (1) is a trimeric cryptoporic acid reported for the first time. Compounds 2 and 5 exhibited cytotoxicity against HCT-116 cell lines with IC₅₀ values of 4.3 and 3.6 μM, respectively.