An overview of the management of diabetes from pre-conception, during pregnancy and in the postnatal period

The diagnosis and management of Cushing's syndrome in pregnancy

Endogenous Cushing's syndrome (CS) is rarely encountered during pregnancy. Clinical and biochemical changes in healthy pregnancy overlap with those seen in pregnancy complicated by CS; the diagnosis is therefore challenging and can be delayed. During normal gestation, adrenocorticotrophic hormone, corticotrophin-releasing hormone, cortisol, and urinary free cortisol levels rise. Dexamethasone administration fails to fully suppress cortisol in pregnant women without CS. Localisation may be hindered by non-suppressed adrenocorticotrophic hormone levels in a large proportion of those with adrenal CS; smaller corticotroph adenomas may go undetected as a result of a lack of contrast administration or the presence of pituitary hyperplasia; and inferior petrosal sinus sampling is not recommended given the risk of radiation and thrombosis. Yet, diagnosis is essential; active disease is associated with multiple insults to both maternal and foetal health, and those cured may normalise the risk of maternal-foetal complications. The published literature consists mostly of case reports or small case series affected by publication bias, heterogeneous definitions of maternal or foetal outcomes or lack of detail on severity of hypercortisolism. Consequently, conclusive recommendations, or a standardised management approach for all, cannot be made. Management is highly individualised: the decision for surgery, medical control of hypercortisolism or adoption of a conservative approach is dependent on the timing of diagnosis (respective to stage of gestation), the ability to localise the tumour, severity of CS, pre-existing maternal comorbidity, and, ultimately, patient choice. Close communication is a necessity with the patient placed at the centre of all decisions, with risks, benefits, and uncertainties around any investigation and management carefully discussed. Care should be delivered by an experienced, multidisciplinary team, with the resources and expertise available to manage such a rare and challenging condition during pregnancy.

Guideline No. 427: Folic Acid and Multivitamin Supplementation for Prevention of Folic Acid-Sensitive Congenital Anomalies

OBJECTIVE

To provide updated guidance on pre-conception folic acid and multivitamin supplementation for primary and secondary (recurrence) prevention of neural tube defects and other folate-sensitive congenital anomalies.

TARGET POPULATION

Women aged 12-45 years who could become pregnant should be aware of the risk of serious birth defects without adequate pre-conception and first-trimester folic acid supplementation.

OPTIONS

Optimizing folic acid supplementation is complex and depends on factors including dosage; type of supplement; bioavailability of folate from food, timing of initiating supplementation; and metabolic and genetic factors. For all women who could become pregnant, a low daily dosage of folic acid is recommended before conception and throughout pregnancy and breastfeeding. High-dosage folic acid supplementation is recommended only for women who can become pregnant and have had a previous pregnancy affected by a neural tube defect or other folate-sensitive congenital anomaly. Directed personalized approaches could be considered and adopted for women who can become pregnant and have complex risks (genetic, medical, or surgical risk factors), using new knowledge of co-factor metabolism and synergy, as well as red blood cell or serum folate testing. Such approaches would require changes to current provincial health care maternal serum folate screening/testing.

OUTCOMES

New approaches to oral folic acid supplementation, including triage tools, need to be considered to optimize the benefits of decreasing risk of neural tube defects and folate-sensitive congenital anomalies.

BENEFITS, HARMS, AND COSTS

Oral folic acid supplementation, or dietary folate intake combined with a multivitamin/micronutrient supplement, is associated with lower rates of neural tube defects, other folate-sensitive birth defects, and obstetrical complications. The costs are those attributable to daily vitamin supplementation and a healthy, folate-rich diet.

EVIDENCE

A literature search was designed and carried in PubMed and the Cochrane Library databases from 1990 to 2021 using following MeSH terms and keywords (and variants): folic acid supplementation; folate food fortification; primary neural tube defect prevention; prevention of recurrence of neural tube defects; folate-sensitive birth defects; folate supplementation benefit; folate supplementation risk; folate pregnant woman physiology; pregnant woman RBC folate level; pregnant woman serum folate levels; folate and epilepsy; folate and obesity. This guideline was based upon expert guidelines or opinions, systematic reviews, randomized controlled clinical trials, and observational case-control studies and case series retrieved, published in English from 1990 to 2021.

VALIDATION METHODS

The authors rated the quality of evidence and strength of recommendations using the Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. See online Appendix A (Tables A1 for definitions and A2 for interpretations of strong and weak recommendations).

INTENDED AUDIENCE

Maternity health care providers (physicians, midwives, nurses) and other providers of pregnancy-related wellness and health counselling.

SUMMARY STATEMENTS

RECOMMENDATIONS.

Directive clinique no427 : Suppléments d'acide folique et multivitamines en prévention des anomalies congénitales sensibles à l'acide folique

OBJECTIF

Offrir des recommandations à jour sur l'utilisation de multivitamines et de suppléments d'acide folique avant la conception pour la prévention primaire et secondaire (récidive) des anomalies du tube neural et des autres anomalies congénitales sensibles à l'acide folique.

POPULATION CIBLE

Les femmes de 12 à 45 ans qui pourraient devenir enceintes doivent être informées des risques importants d'anomalies congénitales en l'absence d'une supplémentation adéquate en acide folique avant la conception et pendant le premier trimestre.

OPTIONS

La supplémentation optimale en acide folique est complexe et repose sur divers facteurs tels que la dose, le type de suppléments, la biodisponibilité du folate dans l'alimentation, le moment du début de la supplémentation ainsi que sur les facteurs métaboliques et génétiques. Pour toutes les femmes qui peuvent devenir enceintes, une faible dose quotidienne d'acide folique est recommandée avant la conception et pendant la grossesse et l'allaitement. La supplémentation à forte dose d'acide folique est recommandée uniquement chez les femmes qui peuvent devenir enceintes et qui ont un antécédent de grossesse avec anomalie du tube neural ou toute autre anomalie congénitale sensible à l'acide folique. Il est possible d'envisager et d'adopter une approche personnalisée chez les femmes qui peuvent devenir enceintes et qui présentent des risques complexes (facteurs de risque génétiques, médicaux ou chirurgicaux) en se fondant sur les nouvelles connaissances en matière de métabolisme et synergie des cofacteurs et sur l'analyse du taux sérique et érythrocytaire d'acide folique. Ce genre d'approche exige une modification des protocoles provinciaux actuels de santé publique concernant le dépistage et l'analyse du taux sérique maternel d'acide folique. RéSULTATS: Les nouvelles stratégies de supplémentation en acide folique par voie orale, y compris dans les outils de triage, doivent être prises en compte pour diminuer de façon optimale le risque d'anomalies du tube neural et d'anomalies congénitales sensibles à l'acide folique. BéNéFICES, RISQUES ET COûTS: On observe une diminution du taux d'anomalies du tube neural, des autres anomalies congénitales sensibles à l'acide folique et des complications obstétricales chez les femmes qui prennent des suppléments oraux d'acide folique ou qui complémentent leur apport alimentaire en folate au moyen de multivitamines ou de suppléments de micronutriments. Les coûts relatifs sont liés à la prise quotidienne de suppléments vitaminiques et à l'adoption d'un régime alimentaire sain et riche en folate. DONNéES PROBANTES: Une recherche a été effectuée dans les bases de données PubMed et Cochrane Library pour trouver des articles publiés entre 1990 et 2021, en utilisant les termes MeSH et mots-clés (et leurs variantes) suivants : folate food fortification; primary neural tube defect prevention; prevention of recurrence of neural tube defects; folate-sensitive birth defects; folate supplementation benefit; folate supplementation risk; folate pregnant woman physiology; pregnant woman RBC folate level; pregnant woman serum folate levels; folate and epilepsy; folate and obesity. Cette directive clinique repose sur des lignes directrices et opinions de spécialistes, des revues systématiques, des essais cliniques randomisés et des études observationnelles de cas-témoin et de séries de cas qui ont été publiés en anglais entre 1990 et 2021. MéTHODES DE VALIDATION: Les auteurs ont évalué la qualité des données probantes et la force des recommandations en utilisant le cadre méthodologique GRADE (Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluation). Voir l'annexe A en ligne (tableau A1 pour les définitions et tableau A2 pour l'interprétation des recommandations fortes et faibles). PROFESSIONNELS CONCERNéS: Fournisseurs de soins de maternité (médecins, sages-femmes et infirmières) et autres fournisseurs d'accompagnement en santé et bien-être lié à la grossesse. DÉCLARATIONS SOMMAIRES: RECOMMANDATIONS.

Developmental Effects of (Pre-)Gestational Diabetes on Offspring: Systematic Screening Using Omics Approaches

Worldwide, gestational diabetes affects 2-25% of pregnancies. Due to related disturbances of the maternal metabolism during the periconceptional period and pregnancy, children bear an increased risk for future diseases. It is well known that an aberrant intrauterine environment caused by elevated maternal glucose levels is related to elevated risks for increased birth weights and metabolic disorders in later life, such as obesity or type 2 diabetes. The complexity of disturbances induced by maternal diabetes, with multiple underlying mechanisms, makes early diagnosis or prevention a challenging task. Omics technologies allowing holistic quantification of several classes of molecules from biological fluids, cells, or tissues are powerful tools to systematically investigate the effects of maternal diabetes on the offspring in an unbiased manner. Differentially abundant molecules or distinct molecular profiles may serve as diagnostic biomarkers, which may also support the development of preventive and therapeutic strategies. In this review, we summarize key findings from state-of-the-art Omics studies addressing the impact of maternal diabetes on offspring health.

Maternal folic acid and multivitamin supplementation: International clinical evidence with considerations for the prevention of folate-sensitive birth defects

More evidence is available for maternal intake, absorption, distribution, tissue specific concentrations, and pregnancy outcomes with folic acid (fortification/supplementation) during preconception - first trimester. This Quality Improvement prevention review used expert guidelines/opinions, systematic reviews, randomized control trials/controlled clinical trials, and observational case control/case series studies, published in English, from 1990 to August 2021. Optimization for an oral maternal folic acid supplementation is difficult because it relies on folic acid dose, type of folate supplement, bio-availability of the folate from foods, timing of supplementation initiation, maternal metabolism/genetic factors, and many other factors. There is continued use of high dose pre-food fortification 'RCT evidenced-based' folic acid supplementation for NTD recurrence pregnancy prevention. Innovation requires preconception and pregnancy use of 'carbon one nutrient' supplements (folic acid, vitamin B12, B6, choline), using the appropriate evidence, need to be considered. The consideration and adoption of directed personalized approaches for maternal complex risk could use serum folate testing for supplementation dosing choice. Routine daily folic acid dosing for low-risk women should consider a multivitamin with 0.4 mg of folic acid starting 3 months prior to conception until completion of breastfeeding. Routine folic acid dosing or preconception measurement of maternal serum folate (after 4-6 weeks of folate supplementation) could be considered for maternal complex risk group with genetic/medical/surgical co-morbidities. These new approaches for folic acid oral supplementation are required to optimize benefit (decreasing folate sensitive congenital anomalies; childhood morbidity) and minimizing potential maternal and childhood risk.