Involvement of transcribed lncRNA uc.291 and SWI/SNF complex in cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma

While non-melanoma skin cancers (NMSCs) are the most common tumours in humans, only the sub-type cutaneous squamous cell carcinoma (cSCC), might become metastatic with high lethality. We have recently identified a regulatory pathway involving the lncRNA transcript uc.291 in controlling the expression of epidermal differentiation complex genes via the interaction with ACTL6A, a component of the chromatin remodelling complex SWI/SNF. Since transcribed ultra-conserved regions (T-UCRs) are expressed in normal tissues and are deregulated in tumorigenesis, here we hypothesize a potential role for dysregulation of this axis in cSCC, accounting for the de-differentiation process observed in aggressive poorly differentiated cutaneous carcinomas. We therefore analysed their expression patterns in human tumour biopsies at mRNA and protein levels. The results suggest that by altering chromatin accessibility of the epidermal differentiation complex genes, down-regulation of uc.291 and BRG1 expression contribute to the de-differentiation process seen in keratinocyte malignancy. This provides future direction for the identification of clinical biomarkers in cutaneous SCC. Analysis of publicly available data sets indicates that the above may also be a general feature for SCCs of different origins.

Neonatal outcomes and risk of neonatal sepsis in an expectantly managed cohort of late preterm prelabor rupture of membranes

OBJECTIVE

Expectant management in patients with prelabor preterm rupture of membranes between between 34^0/7 and 36 ^6/7 weeks (late preterm pPROM or LpPROM) has been shown to decrease the burden of prematurity, when compared to immediate delivery. As the severity of prematurity depends on gestational age (GA) at PROM, and PROM to delivery interval, we first investigated how such variables affect neonatal outcomes (NO). Second, we assessed the risk of neonatal sepsis.

STUDY DESIGN

retrospective cohort study on neonatal morbidity among singleton infants born to expectantly managed mothers with LpPROM in five hospitals affiliated with three Italian academic institutions. The primary NO was a composite of neonatal death, non-invasive (cPAP) or invasive (mechanical ventilation) respiratory support, hypoglycemia (< 44 mg/dl needing therapy), newborn sepsis, confirmed seizures, stroke, intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), basal nuclei anomalies, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, umbilical-cord-blood arterial pH < 7.0 or base excess < -12.5, and prolonged hospitalization (≥ 5 days). Univariate analysis described differences in the population according to GA at delivery. Multivariate logistic regression was then used to investigate the effects of GA at PROM, and PROM to delivery interval on the NO.

RESULTS

258/606 (42.6 %) women with LpPROM were expectantly managed, as they did not deliver within the first 24 h. The median latency duration was 2 (95 %CI 1-3) days, having no effect on neonatal morbidity on multivariate analysis. Multivariate analysis also showed increased risks of adverse NO among PROM at 34 (OR 2.3 95 %CI 1.03-5.1) but not at 35 weeks when compared to 36 weeks, and among women receiving antenatal corticosteroids (OR 3.6 95 %CI 1.3-9.7), while antibiotic treatment showed a non-significant protective effect (OR 0.2 95 %CI 0.04-1.02). Prevalence of neonatal sepsis was 0.8 % (2/258) CONCLUSION: Expectant management of LpPROM should be encouraged especially between 34⁺⁰ and 34⁺⁶ weeks', when the burden of prematurity is the greatest. Antibiotics may have beneficial effects, while careful consideration should be given to antenatal corticosteroids until future studies specifically address LpPROM.

Model-Based Dialysis Adequacy Prediction by Continuous Dialysate Urea Monitoring

A modeling approach for on-line estimation of urea kinetics from continuous measurement of urea concentration in the effluent dialysate stream (DUN) is presented. On-line identification of urea kinetics response parameters is used to predict and update dialysis adequacy during the treatment. Dialysis adequacy can be quantified in several ways, but its strict dependence on final urea concentration is a major fact. For this reason, a good predictive skill on the time course of DUN may enable better performances in the control of dialysis outcome by treatment parameters adjustment. A post-filter enzymatic sensor performs continuous measurement of DUN on patients undergoing standard haemodialysis. To get an early prediction of the end dialysis urea level, the solution of a variable volume double-pool (VVDP) model is used, whose parameters are identified at each time on the basis of the past DUN history. Unlike the variable volume single-pool (VVSP) model, this enables a prompt and accurate estimation of the final DUN. In fact, after 75 min the estimates always differ by less than 10% from the values measured by the sensor at the end of the treatment. Moreover, values predicted by the model in the last hour always lie within 1% of measured final values. Realtime knowledge of an analytic expression for whole DUN time course also enables the accurate prediction of total removed urea, with no need of cumbersome dialysate collection techniques.

On-Line Estimation and Prediction of Urea Kinetics during Hemodialysis: A Simulation Approach

A new method for the on-line estimation of urea kinetic parameters from blood urea concentration (BUN) continuously measured during a dialysis session is proposed. The method, based on the variable-volume double-pool model, is evaluated through a simulation approach in order to easily consider a large set of well-controlled test conditions. The model is characterized by six parameters, knowledge of which enables early prediction of the end dialysis urea concentration and the dose of dialysis. The sensitivity of the model predicted BUN with respect to the parameters was first analyzed to investigate which can be reliably estimated from blood urea measurements taken at a suitable rate. This analysis showed that the model predicted BUN is highly sensitive to the initial blood urea concentration and to the dialyzer clearance, normalized with respect to the total initial distribution volume, while it is scarcely influenced by the normalized ultrafiltration and urea generation rates. The new on-line estimation technique keeps these two last parameters constant and takes advantage of an original analytic solution of the second order urea kinetics. The results of the estimation process on realistic simulated data showed that the proposed method provides early and reliable estimates of the normalized clearance and of the end dialysis concentration. The transcellular mass transfer coefficient and the intra-extra cellular volume ratio can also be estimated, although with less accuracy. Moreover, it was shown that the use of the single-pool model, instead of the double-pool one, provides systematic errors on the estimates.

Comparative Evaluation of Different Methods to Estimate Urea Distribution Volume and Generation Rate

Eight methods to estimate urea distribution volume and generation rate from blood urea samples measured in dialysis patients are reviewed. An analytical solution has been provided for a double-pool variable volume kinetic model to allow for faster and more accurate simulation and identification. The reliable parameter estimates provided by the double-pool kinetic model starting from seven samples, were assumed as references for the estimates obtained by the remaining methods. These include three kinetic models and four methods based on urea mass-balance. In particular, the estimation techniques differ in the number of compartments where urea is assumed distributed (double- and single-pool) or in the number of blood urea samples. Among the methods based on mass-balance, two techniques neglecting the weight loss or the urea generation during dialysis, were also analysed. The results obtained during hemofiltration sessions using three samples, usually available in clinical practice at the beginning and at the end of dialysis, demonstrate that a new method based on double-pool kinetics provides, on average, the most reliable estimates. Moreover, methods belonging to a single pool view and including both weight loss and urea generation during dialysis seem to underestimate by 1÷2 liters the urea distribution volume. However, neglecting the weight loss or the urea generation can overcompensate this error, resulting in a significant overestimation of the distribution volume. Finally, it has been experimentally proved that the single-pool kinetic methods overestimate the urea production rate, while techniques based on mass balance provide more reliable values.

[Retrospective study on the effects of a whey protein concentrate on body composition in 262 sarcopenic tube fed patients]

AIM

As pointed in ESPEN guidelines on the use of bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA), "body cell mass (BCM) is the protein rich compartment which is affected in catabolic states, and loss of BCM is associated with poor clinical outcome". Whey proteins are known to improve lean mass in many conditions. We retrospectively evaluated the effects of a WP concentrate with high cysteine content (WPHCC) on BCM of 262 sarcopenic tube fed patients (pts).

METHODS

Two hundred sixty-two sarcopenic tube fed pts (130 males, mean age 68,1±15,6 years) were given daily supplemental WPHCC (0.7±0.2 g/kg body weight) after their usual feeding formula, with the aim to improve their BCM. Each patient received a multifrequency impedance test before and after the beginning of WPHCC supplementation (mean follow-up: 4.2±2.8 months). Fifty percent of patients were affected by neurodegenerative diseases, 36% by cancer, 14% by other conditions.

RESULTS

BCM, body weight and fat mass significantly improved (P<0.01) after treatment. No severe side effects were recorded. A slight increase in blood urea was observed.

CONCLUSION

In our population WPHCC have been safe and effective in improving BCM. WPHCC could be useful to improve BCM in sarcopenic tube fed pts, although renal function should be monitored.

The elderly over 90yr affected by deperession post-stroke respond well to antidepressant therapy with SSRI? study on a population admitted in nursing home (RSA)

Introduction

The frailty of elderly in Tenth Decade with stroke was considered a certainty for many years ruling, and the stroke in 90 year old was a paradigm of fragility in gerontology. However soon enough the existing data on the population in nursing homes.

Method

The aim of this study was to evaluate the response to therapy SSRI antidepressants (fluoxetine 20–40 mg; sertraline 25–100 mg,; citalopram 10–40 mg) in a population of olds with depression after-stroke hospitalized in Nursing Home (RSA) at Catania (Sicily). We evaluated a total sample of 66 patients comparing the 13 patients 90yr-old with the 53 patients younger pertaining to the same RSA for stroke.

Results

Stackable with somatic comorbidity and the post-stroke depression between the two populations, we founded:1.

Conclusion

According to this data the response to antidepressants seems to be good and totally overlapped with the population most 'young studied as a reference.

This data also confirms that it is not age itself but the comorbidity of diseases present that make it’ a frail old man and that probably the frailty of the nineties is a biological myth.

Depression and obstructive sleep apnea (OSAS) in the elderly: Study on a population of elderly patients recovered in acute setting

Introduction

The obstructive sleep-apnea (OSAS) is a syndrome common in elderly, dangerous and frequently misunderstood by the superficiality of the evaluation of nonspecific symptoms of onset.

Objectives and aims

In this study we studied the prevalence of sleep-apnea (OSAS) in a sick elderly population admitted to a Acute Geriatrics, the correlation with cardiovascular disease and the effects on performaces psychometric

Methods

62 subjects were examined in Acute Cure of Geriatrics of University of Catania. All subjects, after a careful medical history, were administered MMSE to cognitive and affective aspect for GDS. Also consider the autonomy and self-reliance by Barthel-Index, IADL and ADL. All subjects also performed 24-hour Holter-ECG examination and examination for Holter blood pressure in 24 hours, made basic spirometric assessments and finally carried out the examination with polysomnography VitalNight-8.

Results

The results in this study have ample evidence on the prevalence of OSAS in the elderly population admitted to the ward for acute cases. Shall also be significant correlations with cognitive status and mood, both largely influenced negatively by the presence of OSAS. They seem much more depressed elderly patients with OSAS compared with the general population. Finally, the highly statistically significant correlation with the presence of OSAS arrhythmias, high pressure is not controlled by drug therapy, obesity and Chronic Bronchitis.

Conclusions

This study reports the evidence of higher correlation between OSAS and Depression in population studied. All these data make us conclude the obvious danger of this disease still so 'little studied in the elderly population.

Energetic assessment of trunk postural modifications induced by a wearable audio-biofeedback system

This paper investigates the trunk postural modifications induced by a wearable device which assesses the trunk sway and provides biofeedback information through sonification of trunk kinematics. The device is based on an inertial wearable sensing unit including three mono-axial accelerometers and three rate gyroscopes embedded and mounted orthogonally. The biofeedback device was tested on nine healthy subjects during quiet stance in different conditions of sensory limitation eyes closed on solid surface, eyes open on foam cushion surface, eyes closed on foam cushion surface. Five trials were performed for each condition; the order of the trials was randomized. The results reported in this paper show how subjects reduced their rotational kinetic energy by using the biofeedback information and how this reduction was related to the limitation of sensory information.

Light induced atomic desorption from dry-film coatings

We report the first experimental evidence of nonthermal light induced atomic desorption (LIAD) from octadecyltrichlorosilane dry film. The experiment has been made with Rb confined in a coated cell kept at room temperature. A detailed study of the main features of LIAD effect has been made by varying intensity and wavelength of desorbing light. A discussion about the differences and similarities with other organic films that were studied first is reported. This result is important as it expands the list of materials showing such an effect and increases the possibilities to get suitable light controlled atomic sources for spectroscopy and applications. In particular, we plan to exploit this feature in a Fr magneto-optical trap apparatus.

Human postural response to lower leg muscle vibration of different duration

Body lean response to bilateral vibrations of soleus muscles were investigated in order to understand the influence of proprioceptive input from lower leg in human stance control. Proprioceptive stimulation was applied to 17 healthy subjects by two vibrators placed on the soleus muscles. Frequency and amplitude of vibration were 60 Hz and 1 mm, respectively. Vibration was applied after a 30 s of baseline. The vibration duration of 10, 20, 30 s respectively was used with following 30 s rest. Subjects stood on the force platform with eyes closed. Postural responses were characterized by center of pressure (CoP) displacements in the anterior-posterior (AP) direction. The CoP-AP shifts as well as their amplitudes and velocities were analyzed before, during and after vibration. Vibration of soleus muscles gradually increased backward body tilts. There was a clear dependence of the magnitude of final CoP shift on the duration of vibration. The amplitude and velocity of body sway increased during vibration and amplitude was significantly modulated by duration of vibration as well. Comparison of amplitude and velocity of body sway before and after vibration showed significant post-effects. Presented findings showed that somatosensory stimulation has a long-term, direction-specific influence on the control of postural orientation during stance. Further, the proprioceptive input altered by soleus muscles vibration showed significant changes in postural equilibrium during period of vibration with interesting post-effects also.

MicroCT examination of human bone specimens: effects of polymethylmethacrylate embedding on structural parameters

X-ray microtomography permits the nondestructive investigation of trabecular and cortical bone specimens without special preparation of the sample. To do a quantitative characterization, the cross-section images have to be binarized, separating bone from nonbone. For this purpose, a widely used method is uniform thresholding. However, for commonly available microtomography scanners which use a polychromatic X-ray source, it is unclear what effect the surrounding medium (e.g. air, saline solution, polymethylmethacrylate) has on the threshold value used for the binarization. In the literature an easy procedure to find the optimal uniform threshold value for a given acquisition condition is reported. By applying this procedure, the present work investigated whether a microtomography scan of trabecular bone samples in air or embedded in polymethylmethacrylate gave the same results in terms of structural parameters. The gold standard, that is, histological sections, was used as a reference. Two fixed threshold values were found, one for the microtomography scans performed in air and one for the scans with the same samples embedded in polymethylmethacrylate. These were applied on the correspondent microtomography images for the estimation of structural parameters, such as bone volume fraction, direct trabecular thickness, direct trabecular separation and structure model index. Paired comparisons were made in bone volume fraction between histological sections and microtomography cross-sections for the same bone samples scanned first in air and then embedded in polymethylmethacrylate, by which no significant differences were found. Paired comparisons were also made in bone volume fraction, direct trabecular thickness, direct trabecular separation and structure model index for the same samples over volumes of interest of 4 x 4 x 4 mm3 between microtomography scans in air and scans with the samples embedded in polymethylmethacrylate. Neither these comparisons showed significant differences. This leads to the conclusion that structural parameters estimated by microtomography for human trabecular bone samples scanned either in air or embedded in polymethylmethacrylate are not affected by the surrounding medium (i.e. presence or absence of polymethylmethacrylate), provided that the corresponding optimal threshold value is applied for each acquisition condition.

Device to measure intra-operatively the primary stability of cementless hip stems

The primary stability of cementless prostheses is critical for the long-term outcome of the operation. Surgeons are currently driven only by their experience in evaluating the extent of stem stability achieved. The aim of the present work was to develop a new device that enables the stability of a cementless stem to be quantitatively assessed intraoperatively. The angle of the stem/femur rotation under torsion and the torque are acquired and compared in real-time to a pre-set threshold inferred from the literature. The device indicates whether the stem is stable or not. It was extensively tested and finally validated in vitro on cadaveric and composite femurs hosting different sizes of the same kind of prostheses, implanted with different levels of press-fitting. The overall accuracy (23%) takes into account not only the overall measurement error but also the variability due to differences in bone quality and stem press-fitting. This error was deemed sufficient to discriminate between stable and unstable implants.

A physical phantom for the calibration of three-dimensional X-ray microtomography examination

X-ray microtomography is rapidly gaining importance as a non-destructive investigation technique, especially in the three-dimensional examination of trabecular bone. Appropriate quantitative three-dimensional parameters describing the investigated structure were introduced, such as the model-independent thickness and the structure model index. The first parameter calculates a volume-based thickness of the structure in three dimensions independent of an assumed structure type. The second parameter estimates the characteristic form of which the structure is composed, i.e. whether it is more plate-like, rod-like or even sphere-like. These parameters are now experiencing a great diffusion and are rapidly growing in importance. To measure the accuracy of these three-dimensional parameters, a physical three-dimensional phantom containing different known geometries and thicknesses, resembling those of the examined structures, is needed. Unfortunately, such particular phantoms are not commonly available and neither does a consolidated standard exist. This work describes the realization of a calibration phantom for three-dimensional X-ray microtomography examination and reports an application example using an X-ray microtomography system. The calibration phantom (external size 13 mm diameter, 23 mm height) was based on various aluminium inserts embedded in a cylinder of polymethylmethacrylate. The inserts had known geometries (wires, foils, meshes and spheres) and thicknesses (ranging from 20 microm to 1 mm). The phantom was successfully applied to an X-ray microtomography device, providing imaging of the inserted structures and calculation of three-dimensional parameters such as the model-independent thickness and the structure model index. With the indications given in the present work it is possible to design a similar phantom in a histology laboratory and to adapt it to the requested applications.

Numerical model to predict the longterm mechanical stability of cementless orthopaedic implants

The objective of this research was to develop a purely biomechanical model, intended to predict the long-term secondary stability of the implant starting from the biomechanical stability immediately after the operation. A continuous rule-based adaptation scheme was formulated as a dynamic system, and the work verified if such a model produced unique and clinically meaningful solutions. It also investigated whether this continuous model provided results comparable with those of a simpler, discrete-states model used in a previous study. The proposed model showed stable convergence behaviour with all investigated initial conditions, with oscillatory behaviour limited to the first steps of the simulation. The results obtained with the wide range of initial conditions support the hypothesis of the existence and uniqueness of the solution for all initial conditions. The differences between the continuous model and the simpler and more efficient finite-states model were found to be extremely modest (less than 4% over the predicted bonded area). Because of these minimal differences, the use of the much faster finite-states model is recommended to investigate asymptotic conditions, and the continuous model described should be used to investigate the evolution over time of the adaptive process.

Periodicalin-situ re-calibration of force platforms: A new method for the robust estimation of the calibration matrix

The paper provides a new technique based on a least-squares approach for the accurate estimation of a force platform calibration matrix using simple manual procedures, when the direction of the applied loads cannot be perfectly aligned with the axes of the platform. This new procedure can be applied to all force platforms and allows the combined application of vertical and horizontal forces, both static and time-varying. The robust calibration method includes the angular errors in the least-squares parameter vector, thus reducing the bias in the estimated calibration matrix parameters. The performance of the robust method was compared with the conventional one, using a numerical simulation approach starting from a known calibration matrix. With the conventional approach, in noiseless conditions, the maximum error due to load misalignment (SD = 3 degrees) was 6% for the direct terms and over 10% for the cross-talk terms. With the robust method, these errors reduced to zero and were always below 0.4%, even when realistic noise was superimposed on the measures. With perfectly aligned loads and realistic output noise, the confidence intervals of the calibration matrix parameters were very similar for the two methods, demonstrating that the increased number of parameters did not affect the reliability of the estimate.

Feature selection of stabilometric parameters based on principal component analysis

This study addresses the challenge of identifying the features of the Centre of pressure (COP) trajectory that are most sensitive to postural performance, with the aim of avoiding redundancy and allowing a straightforward interpretation of the results. Postural sway in 50 young, healthy subjects was measured by a force platform. Thirty-seven stabilometric parameters were computed from the one-dimensional and two-dimensional COP time series. After normalisation to the relevant biomechanical factors, by means of multiple regression models, a feature selection process was performed based on principal component analysis. Results suggest that COP two-dimensional time series can be primarily characterised by four parameters, describing the size of the COP path over the support surface; the principal sway direction; and the shape and bandwidth of the power spectral density plot. COP one-dimensional time series (antero-posterior (AP) and medio-lateral (ML)) can be characterised by six parameters describing COP dispersion along the AP direction; mean velocity along the ML and AP directions; the contrast between ML and AP regulatory activity; and two parameters describing the spectral characteristics of the COP along the AP direction. On the basis of the results obtained, some guidelines are suggested for the choice of stabilometric parameters to use, with the aim of promoting standardisation in quantitative posturography.

Comparison of logistic and Bayesian classifiers for evaluating the risk of femoral neck fracture in osteoporotic patients

Femoral neck fracture prediction is an important social and economic issue. The research compares two statistical methods for the classification of patients at risk for femoral neck fracture: multiple logistic regression and Bayes linear classifier. The two approaches are evaluated for their ability to separate femoral neck fractured patients from osteoporotic controls. In total, 272 Italian women are studied. Densitometric and geometric measurements are obtained from the proximal femur by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. The performances of the two methods are evaluated by accuracy in the classification and receiver operating characteristic curves. The Bayes classifier achieves an accuracy approximately 1% higher than that of the multiple logistic regression. However, the performances of the two methods, evaluated by the area under the curves, are not statistically different. The study demonstrates that the Bayes linear classifier can be a valid alternative to multiple logistic regression in the classification of osteoporotic patients.

Border-tracing algorithm implementation for the femoral geometry reconstruction

In some orthopaedic applications such as the design of custom-made hip prostheses, reconstruction of the bone morphology is a fundamental step. Different methods are available to extract the geometry of the femoral medullary canal from computed tomography (CT) images. In this research, an automatic procedure (border-tracing method) for the extraction of bone contours was implemented and validated. A composite replica of the human femur was scanned and the CT images processed using three different methods, a manual procedure; the border-tracing algorithm; and a threshold-based method. The resulting contours were used to estimate the accuracy of the implemented procedure. The two software techniques were more accurate than the manual procedure. Then, these two procedures were applied to an in vivo CT data set in order to determine to most critical region for repeatability. Only for the images located in this region, the repeatability measurement was carried out for six in vivo CT data sets to evaluate the inter-femur repeatability. The border-tracing method was found to achieve the highest repeatability.

HIDE: a new hybrid environment for the design of custom-made hip prosthesis

This technical note describes a new software environment (HIPCOM design environment, HIDE) for the design of custom-made total hip replacements. These devices are frequently designed using general-purpose mechanical computer-aided design (CAD) programs using a set of bone contours extracted from the computer tomography (CT) images as anatomical reference. On the contrary, the HIDE system was developed to let the operator directly design the stem shape onto the CT images in a single-step operation. The operator can directly import CT data in DICOM format or use special functions to reconvert to a digital stack, the CT images printed on a radiological film. Once the stack of CT images is loaded, the operator can design the implant shape by imposing control sections directly on the CT images. The interpolation of these control sections produces the basic 3D shape of the custom-made stem. The shape is then exported to the CAD-computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) program to refine the design and to generate the part program to manufacture the implant with a CNC tooling machine. Using HIDE, the duration of design steps it affected was reduced by more than 50% with respect to the standard method in use at the manufacturer site. HIDE also improved the accuracy and the repeatability of the whole procedure. The learning curve became flat after only ten cases. These good results were achieved because of the integration of the vectorial description of the prosthetic component with the raster description of the CT data that allowed the designer to use all details available in the CT images.

Fracture prediction for the femoral neck using finite element models

Fracture of the femoral neck is an important clinical, social and economic topic. Prediction in subjects who are at risk for this type of fracture has been the object of numerous studies. Nonetheless, the methods of classification based on densitometric indicators alone have shown poor accuracy. It is the purpose of this study to propose a method to obtain an estimate of the resistance of the proximal femur, and to improve accuracy in prediction in subjects who are at risk for fracture. Based on the densitometric dataset alone, a bidimensional finite element model was developed that takes into account the distribution of density together with the femoral anatomy and the typical conditions of trauma. The model was applied to a group of preliminary osteoporotic patients. The statistical classification showed an increase in accuracy by 13%, as compared to a classification based on densitometric indicators alone.

An improved technique for the extraction of stochastic parameters from stabilograms

An improved characterization of the dynamics of postural sway can provide a better understanding about the functional organization of the postural control system as well as a more robust tool for postural pattern recognition. To this aim, a novel parameterization was applied to the stabilogram diffusion analysis formerly proposed by Collins and De Luca [Collins JJ, De Luca CJ. Open-loop and closed-loop control of posture: a random-walk analysis of center-of-pressure trajectories. Exp Brain Res 1993;95:308-18] that considered the act of maintaining posture as a stochastic process. The main purpose of the present technique was to overcome some drawbacks of the model presented by Collins and De Luca that may restrain its potential application in clinical practice. The approach uses a unique non-linear model to describe the center of pressure (COP) dynamics that reduces the number of parameters and decreases their intra-subject variability; consequently, fewer trials are required to perform reliable estimates of stochastic parameters and this is of particular importance for subjects that cannot afford many repeated measurements because of age or pathology. Four new statistical mechanics parameters (NSMP) were computed on the log-log stabilogram diffusion plots and their estimates were compared in terms of reliability and sensitivity to the visual conditions with: (1) a minimal set of four summary statistic scores (SSS); and (2) the six statistical mechanics parameters (SMP) proposed by Collins and De Luca. All four NSMP showed at least a fair-to-good reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient, ICC>0.49) while SMP (ICC>0.20) showed some poor reliability. A better overall reliability was also observed with respect to SSS. Moreover, only NSMP had a similar score for eyes open and eyes closed conditions. Three out of four NSMP were also significantly sensitive to eyes open or closed conditions (P<0.001) while only three out of six SMP were sensitive to operating conditions (P<0.01).

Effects of hip joint centre mislocation on gait analysis results

Methods to determine the hip joint centre (HJC) location are necessary in gait analysis. It has been demonstrated that the methods proposed in the literature involve large mislocation errors. The choice should be made according to the extent by which HJC location errors distort the estimates of angles and resultant moments at the hip and knee joints. This study aimed at quantifying how mislocation errors propagate to these gait analysis results. Angles and moments at the hip and knee joint were calculated for five able-bodied subjects during level walking. The nominal position of the HJC was determined as the position of the pivot point of a 3D movement of the thigh relative to the pelvis. Angles and moments were then re-calculated after having added to HJC co-ordinates errors in the range of +/-30 mm. Angles and moments at both hip and knee joints were affected by HJC mislocation. The hip moments showed the largest propagation error: a 30 mm HJC anterior mislocation resulted in a propagated error into flexion/extension component of about -22%. The hip abduction/adduction moment was found the second largest affected quantity: a 30 mm lateral HJC mislocation produced a propagated error of about -15%. Finally, a 30 mm posterior HJC mislocation produced a delay of the flexion-to-extension timing in the order of 25% of the stride duration. HJC estimation methods with minimum antero-posterior error should therefore be preferred.

Color doppler ultrasonography imaging to guide transluminal angioplasty of venous stenosis

BACKGROUND

The objective of access surveillance is the early recognition of dysfunction in order to be able to correct the stenosis by angioplasty or surgery before access thrombosis occurs. The advent of color Doppler imaging has enabled studies of color Doppler ultrasonography (CDU) for the guidance of percutaneous transluminal angioplasty (PTA). The aim of the present study was to investigate whether color Doppler imaging alone can be safely and effectively used to diagnose vascular graft access stenoses and guide subsequent PTA.

METHODS

Using the ultrasound velocity dilution method, we measured access blood flow (Qa) during the first hour of hemodialysis every month in patients with grafts as vascular access. When the decrease in Qa from the baseline value was 40% or more, CDU was performed and immediately followed by PTA in the presence of a stenosis of more than 50%. The Qa was then measured during the first dialysis after PTA and one month later. Repeated-measure analysis of variance was applied to evaluate the early and late (after one month) effect of PTA.

RESULTS

Twelve PTAs were performed under CDU guidance in nine patients and led to the elimination of the stenosis or its reduction (two cases). The mean Qa was 809 +/- 263 mL/min at baseline, 468 +/- 153 before PTA, and 820 +/- 281 after PTA. The difference between the pre-PTA and post-PTA values was highly significant (P < 0.001), and the mean value after PTA was not different from baseline (P = 0.672). There were no relevant complications directly related to the procedure.

CONCLUSIONS

The CDU procedure is effective for the diagnosis of vascular access stenosis and as a guide during the PTA procedure. It could improve stenosis screening by avoiding the risks of exposure to ionizing radiation and of adverse reactions to contrast media.

A novel transducer for the measurement of cement-prosthesis interface forces in cemented orthopaedic devices

When a cemented orthopaedic device is being investigated there is a need to estimate the forces at the cement-prosthesis interface. For this reason a miniature transducer was developed that could be included inside the surface of most prostheses. A load cell (based on a piezoelectric sensor) and the required accessories and amplification were custom designed and built. The present work describes the validation that was performed on the piezo sensors alone, when mounted on a simplified structure, and when applied to a hip stem.Linearity, repeatability, reproducibility, and sensibility to shear and axial eccentric loads were tested, yielding satisfactory results. The repeatability on the same sensor was found to be good while reproducibility between sensors was lower. Thus, each sensor was calibrated separately with a second order relationship. Sensitivity to shear and eccentric loads was very low. The overall accuracy of the load cell (including non-linearity, and signal drift) was of the order of about 1%.A hip stem instrumented with four such sensors was successfully implanted in a composite femur, yielding meaningful readouts.Thus, this type of sensor can readily be used to assess the cement-prosthesis interface forces in cemented devices.

A model-based method for the reconstruction of total knee replacement kinematics

A better knowledge of the kinematics behavior of total knee replacement (TKR) during activity still remains a crucial issue to validate innovative prosthesis designs and different surgical strategies. Tools for more accurate measurement of in vivo kinematics of knee prosthesis components are therefore fundamental to improve the clinical outcome of knee replacement. In the present study, a novel model-based method for the estimation of the three-dimensional (3-D) position and orientation (pose) of both the femoral and tibial knee prosthesis components during activity is presented. The knowledge of the 3-D geometry of the components and a single plane projection view in a fluoroscopic image are sufficient to reconstruct the absolute and relative pose of the components in space. The technique is based on the best alignment of the component designs with the corresponding projection on the image plane. The image generation process is modeled and an iterative procedure localizes the spatial pose of the object by minimizing the Euclidean distance of the projection rays from the object surface. Computer simulation and static/dynamic in vitro tests using real knee prosthesis show that the accuracy with which relative orientation and position of the components can be estimated is better than 1.5 degrees and 1.5 mm, respectively. In vivo tests demonstrate that the method is well suited for kinematics analysis on TKR patients and that good quality images can be obtained with a carefully positioning of the fluoroscope and an appropriate dosage. With respect to previously adopted template matching techniques, the present method overcomes the complete segmentation of the components on the projected image and also features the simultaneous evaluation of all the six degrees of freedom (DOF) of the object. The expected small difference between successive poses in in vivo sequences strongly reduces the frequency of false poses and both the operator and computation time.

Flat foot functional evaluation using pattern recognition of ground reaction data

OBJECTIVE

Main purpose of this study was to apply quantitative gait analysis and statistical pattern recognition as clinical decision-making aids in flat foot diagnosis and post-surgery monitoring.

DESIGN

Statistical pattern recognition techniques were applied to discriminate between normal and flat foot populations through ground reaction force measurements; ground reaction forces time course was assumed as a sensible index of the foot function.

BACKGROUND

Gait analysis is becoming recognized as an important clinical tool in orthopaedics, in pre-surgery planning, post-surgery monitoring and in a posteriori evaluation of different treatment techniques. Statistical pattern recognition techniques have been utilized with success in this field to identify the most significant variables of selected motor functions in different pathologies, and to design classification rules and quantitative evaluation scores.

METHODS

Ground reaction forces were recorded during free speed barefoot walks on 28 healthy subjects, and 28 symptomatic flexible flat foot children selected for surgical intervention. A new feature selection algorithm, based on heuristic optimization, was applied to select the most discriminant ground reaction forces time samples. A two-stage pattern recognition system, composed by three linear feature extractors, one for each ground reaction force component, and a linear classifier, was designed to classify the feet of each subject using the selected features. The output of the classifier was used to define a functional score.

RESULTS

The classifier assigned the ground reaction force patterns performed by each subject into the right class with an estimated error of 15%, corresponding to an assignment error for each subject's foot of 9%. The most discriminant ground reaction forces time samples selected are in full agreement with the pathophysiology of the symptomatic flexible flat foot. The obtained score was utilized to monitor the 1 and 2 years post-operative functional recovery of two differently treated subgroups of 32 flexible flat foot subjects.

CONCLUSIONS

Statistical pattern recognition techniques are promising tools for clinical gait analysis; the obtained score provides important functional information that could be used as a further aid in the clinical evaluation of flat foot and different surgical treatment techniques.

RELEVANCE

Symptomatic flexible flat foot surgical decision making is frequently difficult because of the lack of objective criteria to assess functional abnormalities of the foot/ankle complex. Gait analysis and statistical pattern recognition can give us parameters with which to characterize "functional" flat foot. Moreover, we can objectively follow up the recovery of the foot/ankle complex function after surgical treatment.

Risk of fracture in elderly patients: a new predictive index based on bone mineral density and finite element analysis

Hip fracture is more and more frequent in elderly population. For this reason, an increasing attention has been focused on the development of a non-invasive method to predict femoral neck fracture. A conventional approach to fracture diagnosis is the measurement of bone mass by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry in some regions of interest. The aim of this work is to assess a method that accounts for the structural details of the bone providing a more direct determination of strength properties, and improving the diagnostic power of the current densitometric systems. A 2D finite element model of the proximal femur is derived from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry data. Initially, the method is validated in vitro using a replica of the human femur. The predicted results are compared to strain-gauge measurements and to a 3D finite element model, with good agreement being observed. Then, an in vivo preliminary study on a limited group of patients is carried out. The loading condition that simulates a fall to the side onto the greater trochanter from standing height is employed. All simulations show a peak strain at the femoral neck region with a strain distribution typical of a fall on the side. The proposed method seems to supply a useful tool for the in vivo analysis of the risk of hip fracture.

CT data sets surface extraction for biomechanical modeling of long bones

In modelling applications such as custom-made implants design is useful to have a surface representation of the anatomy of bones rather than the voxel-based representation generated by tomography systems. A voxel-to-surface conversion process is usually done by a 2D segmentation of the images stack. However, other methods allow a direct 3D segmentation of the CT or MRI data set. In the present work, two of these methods, namely the Standard Marching Cube (SMC) and the Discretized Marching Cube (DMC) algorithms, were compared in terms of local accuracy when used to reconstruct the geometry of a human femur. The SMC method was found to be more accurate than the DMC method. The SMC method was capable of reconstructing the inner and outer geometry of a human femur with a peak error lower than 0.9 mm and an average error comparable to the pixel size (0.3 mm). However, the large number of triangles generated by the algorithm may limit its adoption in many modelling applications. The peak error of the DMC algorithm was 1.6 mm but it produced approximately 70% less triangles than the SMC method. From the results of this study, it may be concluded that three dimensional segmentation algorithms are useful not only in visualisation applications but also in the creation of geometry models.

A new method for the automatic mesh generation of bone segments from CT data

A new procedure for the automatic generation of finite element meshes of bone segments from computed tomography (CT) data sets is described. The new method allows a direct automatic generation from the CT data and produces a very accurate unstructured hexahedral mesh. The accuracy of the method was established using the CT images of an artificial femur showing range of attenuation values comparable to those of a human femur. To establish the optimal values for the parameters controlling the mesh a sensitivity analysis was carried out using mesh-conditioning indicators. Some of the best meshes, with increasing levels of refinement, were used to analyse the stresses induced in the proximal femur by single leg stance posture. The accuracy of the meshes was evaluated using an implicit a posteriori residual-based error estimates. The number of elements with stress residuals larger than 10% of the peak stress was 7.8% using the coarsest mesh and only 1.8% with the finest mesh. The proposed method has been proved able to conjugate full automation with high-quality finite element meshes. The stress predictions obtained using these hexahedral-only meshes have been more accurate than those obtained by any other automatic mesh generation algorithm. Once properly integrated in an easy-to-use application, the described method could finally make feasible many clinical applications of finite element analysis.

Analysis of titanium induced CT artifacts in the development of biomechanical finite element models

X-ray computerized tomography (CT) is capable of providing detailed information about the geometry and mineral density of skeletal structures. Such accurate data are of great interest in studying the effects of orthopaedic implants on bone adaptive behaviour in vivo. Metallic implants, however, generate artifacts, typically seen as starburst streaking. These artifacts can degrade the capabilities of CT images to provide accurate information about the geometry and mineral density of bone structures. The aim of this work was to investigate the possibility of developing finite element models (FEM) of the human femur after hip joint arthroplasty using CT images acquired directly after surgery. The capability of modern CT scanners to accurately reconstruct the cross-section geometry of titanium alloy hip joint prosthetic stems was primarily investigated. A new measuring procedure dealing with the geometry of real stems was developed and its accuracy assessed. Secondly, the artifacts generated by a prosthetic stem on the radiological density of the bone were analysed, and their effects on the assessment of FEM material properties were evaluated. Results showed that CT images provide accurate information on metal stem geometry. An average error of 0.45 mm was estimated in the reconstruction of stem cross-section geometry. Concerning bone density estimation around the implant, it was observed that the effect of metal artifacts on tissue density becomes zero at a distance of 2 mm from the implant.

Skin movement artefact assessment and compensation in the estimation of knee-joint kinematics

In three dimensional (3-D) human movement analysis using close-range photogrammetry, surface marker clusters deform and rigidly move relative to the underlying bone. This introduces an important artefact (skin movement artefact) which propagates to bone position and orientation and joint kinematics estimates. This occurs to the extent that those joint attitude components that undergo small variations result in totally unreliable values. This paper presents an experimental and analytical procedure, to be included in a subject-specific movement analysis protocol, which allows for the assessment of skin movement artefacts and, based on this knowledge, for their compensation. The effectiveness of this procedure was verified with reference to knee-joint kinematics and to the artefacts caused by the hip movements on markers located on the thigh surface. Quantitative validation was achieved through experimental paradigms whereby prior reliable information on the target joint kinematics was available. When position and orientation of bones were determined during the execution of a motor task, using a least-squares optimal estimator, but the rigid artefactual marker cluster movement was not dealt with, then knee joint translations and rotations were affected by root mean square errors (r.m.s.) up to 14 mm and 6 degrees, respectively. When the rigid artefactual movement was also compensated for, then r.m.s errors were reduced to less than 4 mm and 3 degrees, respectively. In addition, errors originally strongly correlated with hip rotations, after compensation, lost this correlation.

Model-based dialysis adequacy prediction by continuous dialysate urea monitoring

A modeling approach for on-line estimation of urea kinetics from continuous measurement of urea concentration in the effluent dialysate stream (DUN) is presented. On-line identification of urea kinetics response parameters is used to predict and update dialysis adequacy during the treatment. Dialysis adequacy can be quantified in several ways, but its strict dependence on final urea concentration is a major fact. For this reason, a good predictive skill on the time course of DUN may enable better performances in the control of dialysis outcome by treatment parameters adjustment. A post-filter enzymatic sensor performs continuous measurement of DUN on patients undergoing standard haemodialysis. To get an early prediction of the end dialysis urea level, the solution of a variable volume double-pool (VVDP) model is used, whose parameters are identified at each time on the basis of the past DUN history Unlike the variable volume single-pool (VVSP) model, this enables a prompt and accurate estimation of the final DUN. In fact, after 75 min the estimates always differ by less than 10% from the values measured by the sensor at the end of the treatment. Moreover, values predicted by the model in the last hour always lie within 1% of measured final values. Real-time knowledge of an analytic expression for whole DUN time course also enables the accurate prediction of total removed urea, with no need of cumbersome dialysate collection techniques.

Optimal CT scanning plan for long-bone 3-D reconstruction

Digital computed tomographic (CT) data are widely used in three-dimensional (3-D) reconstruction of bone geometry and density features for 3-D) modeling purposes. During in vivo CT data acquisition the number of scans must be limited in order to protect patients from the risks related to X-ray absorption. Aim of this work is to automatically define, given a finite number of CT slices, the scanning plan which returns the optimal 3-D) reconstruction of a bone segment from in vivo acquired CT images. An optimization algorithm based on a Discard-Insert-Exchange technique has been developed. In the proposed method the optimal scanning sequence is searched by minimizing the overall reconstruction error of a two-dimensional (2-D) prescanning image: an anterior-posterior (AP) X-ray projection of the bone segment. This approach has been validated in vitro on three different femurs. The 3-D reconstruction errors obtained through the optimization of the scanning plan on the 2-D) prescanning images and on the corresponding 3-D data sets have been compared. Two-dimensional and 3-D data sets have been reconstructed by linear interpolation along the longitudinal axis. Results show that direct 3-D optimization yields root mean square reconstruction errors which are only 4%-7% lower than the 2-D-optimized plan, thus proving that 2-D-optimization provides a good suboptimal scanning plan for 3-D reconstruction. Further on, 3-D reconstruction errors given by the optimized scanning plan and a standard radiological protocol for long bones have been compared. Results show that the optimized plan yields 20%-50% lower 3-D reconstruction errors.

Global asymptotic stability of bone remodeling theories: a new approach based on non-linear dynamical systems analysis

Mathematical tools for the analysis of nonlinear dynamical systems are applied to the study of stability of bone remodeling theories. As a practical application, the same problem studied by Harrigan and Hamilton (1992) and Cowin et al. (1994b) is analysed using these tools, and their findings on the necessary and sufficient conditions to ensure local asymptotic stability are easily confirmed. Using a general approach based on Lyapunov's method the same condition has been found to be necessary and sufficient also for the global asymptotic stability, thus confirming a result obtained by Harrigan and Hamilton (1994) by variational methods applied to finite-element models. The proof is based on the discretization of the spatial domain but the results for the continuum can be easily extrapolated.

Application of stereophotogrammetry to total body three-dimensional analysis of human tremor

This work aims at verifying the possibility of investigating joint rotations, with amplitude and frequency ranges typical of pathological human tremor, using commercially available stereophotogrammetric systems together with signal processing techniques. A rotating disk is used as a mechanical tremor simulator to test the ability of the system to track known marker trajectories both in a large and a small calibrated volume. The performances of standard discrete Fourier transform (DFT) and autoregressive techniques are also evaluated and compared in the signal spectrum estimation. Results obtained from a pathological test subject and their dependence on the processing techniques adopted are also presented. The use of stereophotogrammetry and of the proposed signal spectrum estimation technique allow to quantify both frequency and amplitude content of three-dimensional (3-D) rotations of many human joints simultaneously and therefore to isolate the contribution of each joint to the whole body tremor.

Surface-marker cluster design criteria for 3-D bone movement reconstruction

When three-dimensional (3-D) human or animal movement is recorded using a photogrammetric system, bone-embedded frame positions and orientations are estimated from reconstructed surface marker trajectories using either nonoptimal or optimal algorithms. The effectiveness of these mathematical procedures in accommodating for both photogrammetric errors and skin movement artifacts depends on the number of markers associated with a given bone as well as on the size and shape characteristics of the relevant cluster. One objective of this paper deals with the identification of marker-cluster design criteria aimed at the minimization of error propagation from marker coordinates to bone-embedded frame position and orientation. Findings allow for the quantitative estimation of these errors for any given cluster configuration and suggest the following main design criteria. A cluster made up of four markers represents a good practical compromise. Planar clusters are acceptable, provided in quasi-isotropic distribution. The root mean square distance of the markers from their centroid should be greater than ten times the standard deviation of the marker position error. The second objective of this paper deals with the identification of the optimal cluster position and orientation on the limb aimed at the minimization of error propagation to anatomical landmark laboratory coordinates. Cluster position should be selected to minimize skin movement artifacts. The longest principal axis of the marker distribution should be oriented toward the relevant anatomical landmark position.

[Echography of the shoulder with the patient supine in the diagnosis of rotator cuff rupture]

We report a new method for shoulder sonography (US): the patient lies supine and his/her arm is positioned so as to optimize tendon depiction. The supraspinatus tendon, which is the most frequently involved structure in rotator cuff tears, is studied with the patient's arm dropped, elbow extended and forearm prone. Our series consisted of 49 surgical patients (arthroscopy in 16 and open surgery in 33 patients): US sensitivity in tear depiction was 84.8%, specificity 100% and accuracy 89.8%. Medium-small tears appeared as transonic areas within tendon substance and/or tendon focal thinning. Large tears appeared as: (a) missed or markedly thinned rotator cuff, with deltoid muscle approximation to the humeral head surface, (b) plenty of fluid collected around bulky tear margins. The US images of 36 patients were then reviewed and the details discussed. A new sign was observed in medium-small tears, that is a sharp hyperechoic band encircling the humeral cartilage (the compass sign). In conclusion, we believe that US performed with the patient in supine recumbency is easier to perform and provides a bigger field of view of the supraspinatus tendon; it also permits to keep stretched rotator cuff, with consequent image quality improvement.

Sonographic anatomy of the supraspinatus tendon and adjacent structures

OBJECTIVE

To depict the detailed sonographic pattern of the normal supraspinatus tendon and adjacent structures. Pathologic findings in these structures. Pathologic findings in these structures are well described, but knowledge of their sonographic anatomy is relatively limited.

DESIGN

A new position for sonography of the shoulder was adopted that permits good stretching and a large field of view of the supraspinatus tendon. The right shoulders of 12 healthy adult volunteers and of a 10-year-old boy were imaged. Frozen-frame images of ten standard sections were obtained, anatomic details were sought, and a sonographic normal pattern was reconstructed.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS

The study allowed sonographic description of new details, including the presence of two distinct tendons of the supraspinatus. Such a reference normal pattern may be helpful in clinical practice for separating the various components and recognizing artifacts or other possible causes of a misdiagnosis.

A new approach for tracking respiratory mechanical parameters in real-time

A new recursive least-squares procedure for on-line tracking of changes in viscoelastic properties of respiratory mechanics is proposed and applied to artificially ventilated patients. Classical least-squares methods based on simple first-order linear models with time-constant parameters generally provide systematic residuals that hardly satisfy standard statistical tests for model validation in terms of residuals. On the other hand, high order and/or nonlinear models introduce parameters whose estimates are of difficult interpretation in a clinical context. The present procedure overcomes these limitations by using the well-known first-order model of respiratory mechanics, wherein variability of resistance and elastance during the breathing cycle is allowed to take into account nonlinear and high-order behavior. Mean and standard deviation of resistance and elastance estimates, relative to a respiratory cycle, are then determined recursively. Feasibility of the method is evaluated by applying it both to experimental and simulated pressure-airflow signals measured in an intensive care unit during mechanical ventilation of patients recovering from heart surgery. Results demonstrate that the proposed procedure provides data description satisfying statistical tests, such as residual whiteness, and reliable estimates of viscoelastic lung parameters even during substantial and fast variations in the respiratory status. In addition, unlike classical methods, the new technique provides the means for on-line evaluation of parameter variability during each respiratory cycle, by the estimate of their standard deviations. This is important in clinical practice, because only the knowledge of reliable parameter values and standard deviations enables significant changes in the respiratory viscoelastic characteristics, and thus in patient status, to be assessed.

A minimal parametric model of the femur to describe axial elastic strain in response to loads

Evaluating the state of stress/strain for a given geometry and load in femurs can be done both experimentally, measuring strain at a limited number of locations, and theoretically with finite element models. Another approach is to describe the state of strain with a few synthetic indices. For this purpose the reverse elastic problem (i.e. bone parameters are estimated given the strain distribution and loads) needs to be solved as opposed to the finite element direct problem. Such reverse models can be then used: (1) to describe simply the strain distribution by means of few synthetic indices; (2) to explain the state of strain; and (3) to predict the strain distribution under different loading conditions. Various linear models, characterized by two to five bone related parameters, were tested on (1) 12 femurs, (2) a finite element model, and (3) data taken from the literature, for a total of 43 loading cases. Three and four-parameter models were able to fit the experimental strain distributions with mean squared residuals smaller than 5% of the strain range. The consistency of the model was proved by the repeatability of the parameters estimate for identical femurs. Furthermore, the bone-related coefficients were able to detect the stiffening effect of the implantation of an uncemented stem. Finally, the model can be used for predictive purposes if the parameter estimates are used with different loading conditions.

Optimization and smoothing techniques in movement analysis

This paper deals with accurate estimation of the degrees of freedom (DOF) of a body segment, starting from the trajectories of clusters of markers acquired with a suitable measurement system. The most commonly employed estimation procedures involve two sequential steps, a trajectory smoothing algorithm and a DOF reconstruction routine. Three optimized smoothing and reconstruction schemes are described, analyzed and tested and their performances are compared with each other and with those of a more traditional technique which contains no optimization criteria. All three schemes include an iterative, weighted-least-squares DOF reconstruction routine and a self-tuning, zero-phase-shift, 4th-order Butterworth filter. Both routines are extensively described and validated on the basis of numerically-simulated marker trajectories. Test results, analyzed on a statistical basis, show that the use of an optimization routine provides a visible improvement in DOF reconstruction. This performance has also been confirmed using stereophotogrammetric data collected on a subject wearing an external fracture fixation device which provides reference values for the bone DOF. Angular DOF estimated applying the optimized method to skin technical clusters are much closer to the reference values than the non-optimized values. Smoothing of data further improves the reconstruction accuracy while a far less crucial role is played by the order in which smoothing and reconstruction routines are applied.

Mechanical validation of whole bone composite femur models

Composite synthetic models of the human femur have recently become commercially available as substitutes for cadaveric specimens. Their quick diffusion was justified by the advantages they offer as a substitute for real femurs. The present investigation concentrated on an extensive experimental validation of the mechanical behaviour of the whole bone composite model, compared to human fresh-frozen and dried-rehydrated specimens for different loading conditions. First, the viscoelastic behaviour of the models was investigated under simulated single leg stance loading, showing that the little time dependent phenomena observed tend to extinguish within a few minutes of the load application. The behaviour under axial loading was then studied by comparing the vertical displacement of the head as well as the axial strains, by application of a parametric descriptive model of the strain distribution. Finally, a four point bending test and a torsional test were performed to characterize the whole bone stiffness of the femur. In all these tests, the composite femurs were shown to fall well within the range for cadaveric specimens, with no significant differences being detected between the synthetic femurs and the two groups of cadaveric femurs. Moreover, the interfemur variability for the composite femurs was 20-200 times lower than that for the cadaveric specimens, thus allowing smaller differences to be characterized as significant using the same simple size, if the composite femurs are employed.