Real-time nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy in the study of biomolecular kinetics and dynamics

The review describes the application of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy to study kinetics of folding, refolding and aggregation of proteins, RNA and DNA. Time-resolved NMR experiments can be conducted in a reversible or an irreversible manner. In particular, irreversible folding experiments pose large requirements for (i) signal-to-noise due to the time limitations and (ii) synchronising of the refolding steps. Thus, this contribution discusses the application of methods for signal-to-noise increases, including dynamic nuclear polarisation, hyperpolarisation and photo-CIDNP for the study of time-resolved NMR studies. Further, methods are reviewed ranging from pressure and temperature jump, light induction to rapid mixing to induce rapidly non-equilibrium conditions required to initiate folding.

[Graduate education for specialist in surgery in the USA--aspects for the young German and American physician]

Due to high standards in clinical practice and outstanding research opportunities in the USA, German residents wish to do a part of their surgical education in an American teaching hospital. Currently, German applicants must have an unrestricted license and a valid Standard ECFMG Certificate. For this certificate they must have passed Step I and II of the United States Medical Licensing Examination, which also includes an English test. The examination requirements are about to be changed. A 1-year participation in one of the 267 surgical residency programs is generally not possible. In Germany, American residents have the opportunity to apply for a supervised training year without passing the German medical exams. At present, there are no clinical exchange programs in surgery between Germany and the USA. Therefore, the German and American College of Surgeons should develop an exchange program for residents in surgery.