Monarch butterfly-breeding habitat restoration: how movement ecology research can inform best practices for site selection

Population dynamics, persistence, and distribution are emergent properties of animal movement behavior and the spatial configuration of resources. Monarch butterflies are a vagile species with an open-population structure. Selecting locations for monarch butterfly- breeding habitat restoration that aligns with natural movement behavior will facilitate efficient habitat utilization across the landscape, increase realized fecundity, and ultimately support increases in the overwintering population size in Mexico. Obtaining and interpreting empirical movement and space-use data through field and laboratory studies are fundamental to this effort. To gain insights into population responses at larger, spatially explicit landscape scales, the results from empirical studies can be incorporated into simulation models. Together, empirical and simulation studies can inform options for creating functional connectivity of monarch butterfly-breeding habitats. Given currently available information, we synthesize studies for the eastern monarch butterfly to illustrate how an improved understanding of movement ecology can assist in planning conservation practices.

Monarch Butterfly Ecology, Behavior, and Vulnerabilities in North Central United States Agricultural Landscapes

The North American monarch butterfly (Danaus plexippus) is a candidate species for listing under the Endangered Species Act. Multiple factors are associated with the decline in the eastern population, including the loss of breeding and foraging habitat and pesticide use. Establishing habitat in agricultural landscapes of the North Central region of the United States is critical to increasing reproduction during the summer. We integrated spatially explicit modeling with empirical movement ecology and pesticide toxicology studies to simulate population outcomes for different habitat establishment scenarios. Because of their mobility, we conclude that breeding monarchs in the North Central states should be resilient to pesticide use and habitat fragmentation. Consequently, we predict that adult monarch recruitment can be enhanced even if new habitat is established near pesticide-treated crop fields. Our research has improved the understanding of monarch population dynamics at the landscape scale by examining the interactions among monarch movement ecology, habitat fragmentation, and pesticide use.

Estimating Perceptual Range of Female Monarch Butterflies (Danaus plexippus) to Potted Vegetative Common Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) and Blooming Nectar Resources

Habitat loss in the summer breeding range contributes to eastern North American monarch (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae) population decline. Habitat restoration efforts include increasing native prairie plants for adult forage and milkweed (Asclepias spp.) for oviposition and larval development. As the monarch is a vagile species, habitat establishment at a grain that matches the monarch perceptual range will facilitate efficient movement, decrease fitness costs of dispersal, and increase oviposition. We released 188 experimental monarch females 5, 25, 50, and 75 m downwind from potted milkweed and blooming forbs in 4-32 ha sod fields. Perceptual range was estimated from monarchs that flew towards and landed on the milkweed and forbs. Flight patterns of 49 non-experimental monarchs that landed on the resources were also observed. In our experimental, resource-devoid setting, wind-facilitated movement occurred most frequently. Monarchs performed direct displacement as evidenced by shallow turn angles and similarity of Euclidian and total distances traveled. We hypothesize similar monarch flight behavior when traveling over other resource-devoid areas, such as crop fields. Although the majority of experimental monarchs flew downwind, eight experimental and 49 non-experimental monarchs were observed flying upwind toward, and landing on, the potted resources from distances ranging from 3 to 125 m (mean = 30.98 m, median = 25 m, mode = 25 m). A conservative estimate of the perceptual range is 125 m, as longer distances cannot be precluded; however, the majority of observations were ≤50 m. Our findings suggest establishing habitat patches ~ 50 m apart would create functional connectivity across fragmented agricultural landscapes.

Prediction of mitochondrial genome-wide variation through sequencing of mitochondrion-enriched extracts

Although mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) haplotype variation is often applied for estimating population dynamics and phylogenetic relationships, economical and generalized methods for entire mtDNA genome enrichment prior to high-throughput sequencing are not readily available. This study demonstrates the utility of differential centrifugation to enrich for mitochondrion within cell extracts prior to DNA extraction, short-read sequencing, and assembly using exemplars from eight maternal lineages of the insect species, Ostrinia nubilalis. Compared to controls, enriched extracts showed a significant mean increase of 48.2- and 86.1-fold in mtDNA based on quantitative PCR, and proportion of subsequent short sequence reads that aligned to the O. nubilalis reference mitochondrial genome, respectively. Compared to the reference genome, our de novo assembled O. nubilalis mitochondrial genomes contained 82 intraspecific substitution and insertion/deletion mutations, and provided evidence for correction of mis-annotated 28 C-terminal residues within the NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4. Comparison to a more recent O. nubilalis mtDNA assembly from unenriched short-read data analogously showed 77 variant sites. Twenty-eight variant positions, and a triplet ATT codon (Ile) insertion within ATP synthase subunit 8, were unique within our assemblies. This study provides a generalizable pipeline for whole mitochondrial genome sequence acquisition adaptable to applications across a range of taxa.

Plant Preferences of Z-Pheromone Race Ostrinia nubilalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) Based on Leaf Tissue Consumption Rates

European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis Hübner (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), has been present in the United States for over 100 yr and documented on >200 plant species, including economically valuable crops. The reported preferred host of O. nubilalis is corn, Zea mays L. (Cyperales: Poaceae), although it is considered to be a generalist agricultural pest. Life cycles of the two pheromone races, E and Z, align with the seasonality of different agricultural plants. Since the introduction of Bt corn in 1996, overall O. nubilalis presence has declined and suggests that alternative crop plants might not be suitable hosts. We investigated plant vegetation preference of third-instar Z-race O. nubilalis for leaf disks of corn and a variety of other crops using 48 h no-choice and choice tests. Z-race larvae gained more mass on V6 non-Bt field corn leaf disks in comparison to other plant species options. Additionally, a preference for non-Bt field corn leaf disks was observed in most comparisons. Higher consumption of cucumber, Cucumis sativus L. (Cucurbitales: Cucurbitaceae), leaf disks as compared to non-Bt field corn leaf disks suggested an ability to feed on excised leaf tissues of a plant species that does not induce defenses to herbivory.

Employing Very High Frequency (VHF) Radio Telemetry to Recreate Monarch Butterfly Flight Paths

The overwintering population of eastern North American monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) has declined significantly. Loss of milkweed (Asclepias sp.), the monarch's obligate host plant in the Midwest United States, is considered to be a major cause of the decline. Restoring breeding habitat is an actionable step towards population recovery. Monarch butterflies are highly vagile; therefore, the spatial arrangement of milkweed in the landscape influences movement patterns, habitat utilization, and reproductive output. Empirical studies of female movement patterns within and between habitat patches in representative agricultural landscapes support recommendations for habitat restoration. To track monarch movement at distances beyond human visual range, we employed very high frequency radio telemetry with handheld antennae to collect movement bearings on a biologically relevant time scale. Attachment of 220-300 mg transmitters did not significantly affect behavior and flight capability. Thirteen radio-tagged monarchs were released in a restored prairie, and locations were estimated every minute for up to 39 min by simultaneous triangulation from four operators. Monarchs that left the prairie were tracked and relocated at distances up to 250 m. Assuming straight flights between locations, the majority of steps within the prairie were below 50 m. Steps associated with exiting the prairie exceeded 50 m with high directionality. Because butterflies do not fly in straight lines between stationary points, we also illustrate how occurrence models can use location data obtained through radio telemetry to estimate movement within a prairie and over multiple land cover types.

Survivorship of Z-Pheromone Race European Corn Borer (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) on a Range of Host Plants Varying in Defensive Chemistry

The European corn borer, Ostrinia nubilalis (Hübner), was introduced in North America in the early 1900s and became a major pest of corn. After its introduction, it was found on > 200 other plant hosts, but corn remained its primary host. Early life history studies indicated that European corn borer had the potential of a wide host range. For nearly 80 yr before the introduction of Bt corn, the European corn borer was a major pest of corn in North America. This study investigated the growth and survivorship of the Z-pheromone race European corn borer on a range of hosts that vary in defensive chemistries and historic degree of infestation to better understand the current host plant range of Z-pheromone race of O. nubilalis. The plants tested include sweet corn, cry1F Bt field corn, non-Bt corn, cucumber, tomato, and green bean. Experiments were conducted in the growth chamber, greenhouse, and field to determine survival under different conditions. In most cases, results supported the expected outcome, with significantly higher survival on non-Bt corn hosts than the other hosts tested. Neonate larvae fed exclusively on leaves of green bean exhibited intermediate survival, whereas third-instars fed on only leaves of cucumber survived intermediately. Larvae on Bt corn and tomato had comparable low survival rates, overall suggesting that the defensive features of tomato are about as effective as Cry1F Bt corn. Non-Bt corn was found to be the most suitable host plant, overall for European corn borer among those tested.

In vitro comparison of the use of two large-animal, centrally threaded, positive-profile transfixation pin designs in the equine third metacarpal bone

OBJECTIVE

To compare the in vitro holding power and associated microstructural damage of 2 large-animal centrally threaded positive-profile transfixation pins in the diaphysis of the equine third metacarpal bone.

SAMPLE POPULATION

25 pairs of adult equine cadaver metacarpal bones.

PROCEDURE

Centrally threaded positive-profile transfixation pins of 2 different designs (ie, self-drilling, self-tapping [SDST] vs nonself-drilling, nonself-tapping [NDNT] transfixation pins) were inserted into the middiaphysis of adult equine metacarpal bones. Temperature of the hardware was measured during each step of insertion with a surface thermocouple. Bone and cortical width, transfixation pin placement, and cortical damage were assessed radiographically. Resistance to axial extraction before and after cyclic loading was measured using a material testing system. Microstructural damage caused by transfixation pin insertion was evaluated by scanning electron microscopy.

RESULTS

The temperature following pin insertion was significantly higher for SDST transfixation pins. Periosteal surface cortical fractures were found in 50% of the bones with SDST transfixation pins and in none with NDNT transfixation pins. The NDNT transfixation pins were significantly more resistant to axial extraction than SDST transfixation pins. Grossly and microscopically, NDNT transfixation pins created less damage to the bone and a more consistent thread pattern.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

In vitro analysis revealed that insertion of NDNT transfixation pins cause less macroscopic and microscopic damage to the bone than SDST transfixation pins. The NDNT transfixation pins have a greater pull out strength, reflecting better initial bone transfixation pin stability.

In vitro comparison of metaphyseal and diaphyseal placement of centrally threaded, positive-profile transfixation pins in the equine third metacarpal bone

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate in vitro holding power and associated microstructural and thermal damage from placement of positive-profile transfixation pins in the diaphysis and metaphysis of the equine third metacarpal bone.

SAMPLE POPULATION

Third metacarpal bones from 30 pairs of adult equine cadavers.

PROCEDURE

Centrally threaded positive-profile transfixation pins were placed in the diaphysis of 1 metacarpal bone and the metaphysis of the opposite metacarpal bone of 15 pairs of bones. Tensile force at failure for axial extraction was measured with a materials testing system. An additional 15 pairs of metacarpal bones were tested similarly following cyclic loading. Microstructural damage was evaluated via scanning electron microscopy in another 6 pairs of metacarpal bones, 2 pairs in each of the following 3 groups: metacarpal bones with tapped holes and without transfixation pin placement, metacarpal bones following transfixation pin placement, and metacarpal bones following transfixation pin placement and cyclic loading. Temperature of the hardware was measured with a surface thermocouple in 12 additional metacarpal bones warmed to 38 C.

RESULTS

The diaphysis provided significantly greater resistance to axial extraction than the metaphysis. There were no significant temperature differences between diaphyseal and metaphyseal placement. Microstructural damage was limited to occasional microfractures seen only in cortical bone of diaphyseal and metaphyseal locations. Microfractures originated during drilling and tapping but did not worsen following transfixation pin placement or cyclic loading.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Centrally threaded, positive-profile transfixation pins have greater resistance to axial extraction in the diaphysis than in the metaphysis of equine third metacarpal bone in vitro. This information may be used to create more stable external skeletal fixation in horses with fractures.

Crystal structure of YbaK protein from Haemophilus influenzae (HI1434) at 1.8 A resolution: functional implications

Structural genomics of proteins of unknown function most straightforwardly assists with assignment of biochemical activity when the new structure resembles that of proteins whose functions are known. When a new fold is revealed, the universe of known folds is enriched, and once the function is determined by other means, novel structure-function relationships are established. The previously unannotated protein HI1434 from H. influenzae provides a hybrid example of these two paradigms. It is a member of a microbial protein family, labeled in SwissProt as YbaK and ebsC. The crystal structure at 1.8 A resolution reported here reveals a fold that is only remotely related to the C-lectin fold, in particular to endostatin, and thus is not sufficiently similar to imply that YbaK proteins are saccharide binding proteins. However, a crevice that may accommodate a small ligand is evident. The putative binding site contains only one invariant residue, Lys46, which carries a functional group that could play a role in catalysis, indicating that YbaK is probably not an enzyme. Detailed sequence analysis, including a number of newly sequenced microbial organisms, highlights sequence homology to an insertion domain in prolyl-tRNA synthetases (proRS) from prokaryote, a domain whose function is unknown. A HI1434-based model of the insertion domain shows that it should also contain the putative binding site. Being part of a tRNA synthetases, the insertion domain is likely to be involved in oligonucleotide binding, with possible roles in recognition/discrimination or editing of prolyl-tRNA. By analogy, YbaK may also play a role in nucleotide or oligonucleotide binding, the nature of which is yet to be determined.

Cytoplasmic cleavage in living zoosporangia of Allomyces macrogynus

We have used the vital fluorescent dye, FM4-64, as a marker of membrane development during zoospore formation in living zoosporangia of Allomyces macrogynus. Membrane development was visualized and documented using standard epifluorescence and laser scanning confocal microscopy. Video-enhanced light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy, using cryopreparation methods, were also employed in this study. In the first 10-12 min after the induction of zoospore formation, only the plasma membrane labelled with FM4-64. During this time, nuclei were strictly located in the cortical cytoplasm with their associated centrosomes positioned immediately adjacent to the plasma membrane (Lowry & Roberson, 1997). Between 12 and 20 min post-induction, increased fluorescence appeared along regions of the plasma membrane adjacent to the nuclei. From these sites, membranes (i.e. cleavage elements) extended laterally within the cortex and then, in conjunction with nuclear migration, rapidly elongated into the sporangial cytoplasm. By 25-35 min post-induction, cleavage elements had ramified throughout the cytoplasm forming a complex, interconnected membranous network. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that cleavage elements were paired membrane sheets with a lumen consisting of an electron opaque, granular matrix. Cleavage elements developed into a highly ordered network by 35-40 min post-induction, which fully delimited zoospore initials into polyhedral-shaped cells. Zoospore discharge occurred between 40 and 50 min post-induction. Our results have shown that cleavage elements undergo four stages of development during zoospore formation in A. macrogynus: (i) development of membrane initials, (ii) cortical extension, (iii) cytoplasmic elongation and ramification and (iv) zoospore initial delimitation.

Establishment and maintenance of nuclear position during zoospore formation in allomyces macrogynus: roles of the cytoskeleton

The involvement of the microtubule (MT) and actin microfilament (MF) cytoskeletons in establishing nuclear positions during zoosporogenesis in Allomyces macrogynus was assessed using selective cytoskeletal disrupting treatments and documented with light microscopy. These experiments were coupled with low-speed centrifugation studies to determine the degree to which cytoskeletal elements anchor nuclear position. At the onset of zoospore formation, nuclei were positioned only in cortical cytoplasmic regions of the zoosporangia (ZS). Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that MTs primarily emanated from centrosomal regions into the surrounding cytoplasm at this stage. During delimitation of the cytoplasm into individual uninucleate zoospores, nuclei migrated from cortical regions to become distributed throughout the cytoplasm. Coincident with nuclear migrations, MTs were primarily organized at and emanated from nuclear surfaces, forming extensive perinuclear arrays. Nuclear migrations were suppressed in ZS induced to sporulate in the presence of cytochalasin D, an actin MF inhibiting compound. Disruption of MTs with nocodazole did not block nuclear migrations, although resultant nuclear spacing was irregular. Centrifugation treatments of control and drug-treated ZS demonstrated that nuclear positions were stabilized by perinuclear MT arrays. The results indicate that nuclear motility in ZS of A. macrogynus is the result of an actin-based system while perinuclear MTs arrays function to establish and fix nuclear position during zoospore formation. Copyright 1998 Academic Press.

Polymorphous crystallization and diffraction of threonine deaminase from Escherichia coli

The biosynthetic threonine deaminase from Escherichia coli, an allosteric tetramer with key regulatory functions, has been crystallized in several crystal forms. Two distinct forms, both belonging to either space group P3121 or P3221, with different sized asymmetric units that both contain a tetramer, grow under identical conditions. Diffraction data sets to 2.8 A resolution (native) and 2. 9 A resolution (isomorphous uranyl derivative) have been collected from a third crystal form in space group I222.

Structure and control of pyridoxal phosphate dependent allosteric threonine deaminase

BACKGROUND

Feedback inhibition of biosynthetic threonine deaminase (TD) from Escherichia coli provided one of the earliest examples of protein-based metabolic regulation. Isoleucine, the pathway end-product, and valine, the product of a parallel pathway, serve as allosteric inhibitor and activator, respectively. This enzyme is thus a useful model system for studying the structural basis of allosteric control mechanisms.

RESULTS

We report the crystal structure of TD at 2.8 A resolution. The tetramer has 222 symmetry, with C-terminal regulatory domains projecting out from a core of catalytic PLP-containing N-terminal domains. The subunits, and especially the regulatory domains, associate extensively to form dimers, which associate less extensively to form the tetramer. Within the dimer, each monomer twists approximately 150 degrees around a thin neck between the domains to place its catalytic domain adjacent to the regulatory domain of the other subunit.

CONCLUSIONS

The structure of TD and its comparison with related structures and other data lead to the tentative identification of the regulatory binding site and revealed several implications for the allosteric mechanism. This work prepares the way for detailed structure/function studies of the complex allosteric behaviour of this enzyme.

A monomeric variant of GroEL binds nucleotides but is inactive as a molecular chaperone

The heat shock protein GroEL from Escherichia coli is a tetradecameric oligomer that facilitates the refolding of nonnative polypeptides in an ATP-hydrolysis dependent reaction. A mutant in GroEL was prepared in which lysine 3 was substituted with glutamate, which destabilizes the oligomeric structure of GroEL (Horovitz, A., Bochkareva, E.S., and Girshovich, A.S. (1993) J. Biol. Chem. 268, 9957-9959). The highly expressed and purified GroELK3E was judged to be monomeric by sedimentation equilibrium, yielding a molecular weight of 54,500, despite a weak tendency of the mutant to reversibly form higher order aggregates above 4 mg ml-1. The monomeric variant appears to be folded based on the far UV circular dichroism spectrum, which shows significant alpha-helical content, but with slight differences in conformation relative to wild-type GroEL. The increase in exposed hydrophobic surface of the monomer was probed with the dye 4,4'-bis-1-anilino-3-naphthalenesulfonate (bis-ANS). The fluorescence of bis-ANS increases approximately 150-fold in the presence of the mutant, and about 4 mol of bis-ANS bind per mol of monomer, with a binding constant of 1.6 microM. Adenosine nucleotide binding to monomeric GroELK3E resulted in considerable quenching of bis-ANS fluorescence, correlating with significant structural changes as seen in the far UV circular dichroism, and permitted the measurement of binding isotherms for ATP and ADP. Hyperbolic ATP binding isotherms yield a dissociation constant of 82 microM, about 4-fold weaker than the K0.5 for ATP seen in steady-state kinetics assays of the wild-type GroEL ATPase.A similar difference was seen for ADP binding. These results suggest that the mutation disrupts the native tetradecameric quaternary structure through conformational changes that may also weaken nucleotide binding. The monomeric mutant exhibited no chaperone activity as evidenced by a filure to inhibit or facilitate the refolding of chemically denatured enolase, an inability to refold denatured rhodanese above spontaneous levels, and a lack of binding to alpha-casein, a competitor in many chaperonin-promoted refolding reactions. Thus, the formation of assembly incompetent monomers by the lysine 3 to glutamate mutation results in a dramatic decrease in the affinity for nonnative polypeptide chains and suggests that the oligomeric nature of GroEL is crucial for its molecular chaperone function.

Monomer-heptamer equilibrium of the Escherichia coli chaperonin GroES

In an effort to clarify the role of GroES in chaperonin-facilitated protein folding, a plasmid-encoding expression system for GroES incorporating a histidine-tagged, thrombin-cleavable, N-terminal sequence was constructed. This approach facilitated the rapid purification of native-like, histidine-cleaved GroES (HC-GroES). The addition of NaSCN to purification buffers to mildly promote subunit dissociation enabled the complete separation of chromosomally encoded, wild-type GroES chains from recombinant chains, allowing the production of homogeneous mutant variants of GroES. A substitution of histidine-7 to tryptophan in GroES was used to demonstrate the concentration-dependent modulation of the heptameric quaternary structure of the chaperonin. Fluorescence and light scattering studies of this mutant suggest that GroES heptamers dissociate to monomers upon dilution with half-times of 2-4 min. Sedimentation equilibrium experiments using either wild-type or HC-GroES can best be described by a monomer--heptamer equilibrium, yielding dissociation constants of 1 x 10(-38) M6 for native GroES and 2 x 10(-32) M6 for HC-GroES. These results are supported by subunit exchange experiments using mixtures of native or HC-GroES and GroES containing the complete N-terminal histidine tail. Native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis demonstrates that these mixtures form an eight-membered hybrid set within minutes. The studies described here suggest a dynamic equilibrium for the quaternary structure of GroES, which may be an important feature for its role in GroEL-mediated protein folding reactions.

An expanded two-state model accounts for homotropic cooperativity in biosynthetic threonine deaminase from Escherichia coli

The linkage between substrate and regulatory effector binding to separate sites on allosteric enzymes results in shifts in their sigmoidal kinetics to regulate metabolism. Control of branched chain amino acid biosynthesis in Escherichia coli occurs in part through shifts in the sigmoidal dependence of alpha-ketobutyrate production promoted by isoleucine and valine binding to biosynthetic threonine deaminase. The structural similarity of threonine, valine, and isoleucine have given rise to suggestions that there may be competition among different ligands for the same sites on this tetrameric enzyme, resulting in a complex pattern of regulation. In an effort to provide a coherent interpretation of the cooperative association of ligands to the active sites and to the effector sites of threonine deaminase, binding studies using single amino acid variants were undertaken. A previously-isolated, feedback-resistant mutant identified in Salmonella typhimurium, ilvA219, has been cloned and sequenced. The phenotype is attributable to a single amino acid substitution in the regulatory domain of the enzyme in which leucine at position 447 is substituted with phenylalanine. The mutant exhibits hyperbolic saturation curves in both ligand binding and steady-state kinetics. These results, in addition to calorimetric and spectroscopic measurements of isoleucine and valine binding, indicate that the low affinity (T) state is destabilized in the mutant and that it exists predominantly in the high affinity (R) conformation in the absence of ligands, providing an explanation for its resistance to isoleucine. Chemical and spectroscopic analyses of another mutant, in which alanine has replaced an essential lysine at position 62 that forms a Schiff base with pyridoxal phosphate, indicate that the cofactor is complexed to exogenous threonine and is therefore unable to bind additional amino acids at the active sites. Isoleucine and valine binding to this inactive, active site-saturated enzyme revealed that it too was stabilized in the R state, yielding binding constants in excellent agreement with the leucine to phenylalanine mutant. The lysine to alanine mutant was further utilized to demonstrate that both threonine and 2-aminobutyrate bind with stronger affinity to the regulatory sites than to the active sites. A direct consequence of these results is that substrates and analogs have a synergistic effect on the allosteric transition since, in effect, they act as both homotropic and heterotropic effectors.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

An efficient approach to identify ilvA mutations reveals an amino-terminal catalytic domain in biosynthetic threonine deaminase from Escherichia coli

High-level expression of the regulatory enzyme threonine deaminase in Escherichia coli strains grown on minimal medium that are deficient in the activities of enzymes needed for branched-chain amino acid biosynthesis result in growth inhibition, possibly because of the accumulation of toxic levels of alpha-ketobutyrate, the product of the committed step in isoleucine biosynthesis. This condition affords a means for selecting genetic variants of threonine deaminase that are deficient in catalysis by suppression of growth inhibition. Strains harboring mutations in ilvA that decreased the catalytic activity of threonine deaminase were found to grow more rapidly than isogenic strains containing wild-type ilvA. Modification of the ilvA gene to introduce additional unique, evenly spaced restriction enzyme sites facilitated the identification of suppressor mutations by enabling small DNA fragments to be subcloned for sequencing. The 10 mutations identified in ilvA code for enzymes with significantly reduced activity relative to that of wild-type threonine deaminase. Values for their specific activities range from 40% of that displayed by wild-type enzyme to complete inactivation as evidenced by failure to complement an ilvA deletion strain to isoleucine prototrophy. Moreover, some mutant enzymes showed altered allosteric properties with respect to valine activation and isoleucine inhibition. The location of the 10 mutations in the 5' two-thirds of the ilvA gene is consistent with suggestions that threonine deaminase is organized functionally with an amino-terminal domain that is involved in catalysis and a carboxy-terminal domain that is important for regulation.

Decreases in albumin/creatinine and N-acetylglucosaminidase/creatinine ratios in urine samples stored at -20 degrees C

The effects of storage for 6 months or 2 years at -20 degrees C were studied in urine samples from Type II diabetic patients by assaying albumin by immunoturbidity, N-acetylglucosaminidase (EC 3.2.1.30) by methoxynitrovinylphenol release, and creatinine by the Jaffé method. There were significant decreases (P < 0.001) in albumin/creatinine ratios from 1.14 (0.63-2.98) to 0.83 (0.32-2.12) g/mol (median + interquartile ranges) after 6 months (n = 97), and from 1.64 (0.74-5.72) to 1.00 (0.37-4.54) g/mol after 2 years (n = 89). The percentage of samples with results below the detection limit of the albumin assay (2 mg/L) increased from 5% to 21% after 6 months and from 0% to 34% after 2 years. N-Acetylglucosaminidase/creatinine ratios decreased (P < 0.001) from 520 (358-832) to 380 (263-695) U/mol after 6 months and from 520 (330-865) to 258 (82-462) U/mol after 2 years. The effect of storage was greater in samples with concentrations in the normal range (< 2.5 g/mol for albumin/creatinine, < 500 U/mol for N-acetylglucosaminidase/creatinine). Samples with albumin concentrations more than twice the normal range were still detected as abnormal after storage at -20 degrees C; e.g., 18% were > 5 g/mol (albumin/creatinine) initially, with 17% > 5 g/mol after 6 months of storage. We therefore recommend storage of urine samples at 4 degrees C for no longer than 7 days before assay.

Protease-deficient Bacillus subtilis host strains for production of Staphylococcal protein A

We constructed strains of Bacillus subtilis which produced very low levels of extracellular proteases. These strains carried insertion or deletion mutations in the subtilisin structural gene (apr) which were constructed in vitro by using the cloned gene. The methods used to construct the mutations involved the use of a plasmid vector which allowed the selection of chromosomal integrates and their subsequent excision by homologous recombination to effect replacement of the chromosomal apr gene by a derivative carrying an inactivating insert with a selectable marker (a cat gene conferring chloramphenicol resistance). The strains produced no subtilisin, no detectable extracellular metalloprotease activity, and residual extracellular serine protease levels as low as 0.5% of that of the standard strain from which they were derived. The strains proved to be superior host strains for the production of staphylococcal protein A, accumulating higher levels of intact protein than do previously available B. subtilis strains.

Expression of the staphylococcal protein A gene in Bacillus subtilis by gene fusions utilizing the promoter from a Bacillus amyloliquefaciens alpha-amylase gene

Gene fusions of DNA sequences encoding protein A from Staphylococcus aureus (spa) with expression elements from an alpha-amylase gene from Bacillus amyloliquefaciens (amyEBamP) directed the synthesis and efficient secretion of protein A in Bacillus subtilis. The fusions were established on multicopy pUB110-based plasmid vectors, in contrast to the intact spa gene, which could not be stably established on plasmids in B. subtilis. Some of the resulting B. subtilis strains secreted protein A at levels in excess of 1 g/liter, demonstrating that a foreign protein encoded by an engineered gene can be secreted by B. subtilis at levels comparable to endogenous exoproteins.