Role of IgE receptors in IgE antibody-dependent cytotoxicity and phagocytosis of ovarian tumor cells by human monocytic cells

Antibodies directed against tumor-associated antigens are emerging as effective treatments for a number of cancers, although the mechanism(s) of action for some are unclear and still under investigation. We have previously examined a chimeric IgE antibody (MOv18 IgE), against the ovarian tumor-specific antigen, folate binding protein (FBP), and showed that it can direct human PBMC to kill ovarian cancer cells. We have developed a three-color flow cytometric assay to investigate the mechanism by which IgE receptors on U937 monocytes target and kill ovarian tumor cells. U937 monocytes express three IgE receptors, the high-affinity receptor, FcepsilonRI, the low-affinity receptor, CD23, and galectin-3, and mediate tumor cell killing in vitro by two mechanisms, cytotoxicity, and phagocytosis. Our results suggest that CD23 mediates phagocytosis, which is enhanced by upregulation of CD23 on U937 cells with IL-4, whereas FcepsilonRI mediates cytotoxicity. We show that effector : tumor cell bridging is associated with both activities. Galectin-3 does not appear to be involved in tumor cell killing. U937 cells and IgE exerted ovarian tumor cell killing in vivo in our xenograft model in nude mice. Harnessing IgE receptors to target tumor cells suggests the potential of tumor-specific IgE antibodies to activate effector cells in immunotherapy of ovarian cancer.

IgE-antibody-dependent immunotherapy of solid tumors: cytotoxic and phagocytic mechanisms of eradication of ovarian cancer cells

Abs have a paramount place in the treatment of certain, mainly lymphoid, malignancies, although tumors of nonhemopoietic origin have proved more refractory ones. We have previously shown that the efficacy of immunotherapy of solid tumors, in particular ovarian carcinoma, may be improved by the use of IgE Abs in place of the conventional IgG. An IgE Ab (MOv18 IgE) against an ovarian-tumor-specific Ag (folate binding protein), in combination with human PBMC, introduced into ovarian cancer xenograft-bearing mice, greatly exceeded the analogous IgG1 in promoting survival. In this study, we analyzed the mechanisms by which MOv18 IgE may exert its antitumor activities. Monocytes were essential IgE receptor-expressing effector cells that mediated the enhanced survival of tumor-bearing mice by MOv18 IgE and human PBMC. Monocytes mediated MOv18 IgE-dependent ovarian tumor cell killing in vitro by two distinct pathways, cytotoxicity and phagocytosis, acting respectively through the IgE receptors FcepsilonRI and CD23. We also show that human eosinophils were potent effector cells in MOv18 IgE Ab-dependent ovarian tumor cell cytotoxicity in vitro. These results demonstrate that IgE Abs can engage cell surface IgE receptors and activate effector cells against ovarian tumor cells. Our findings offer a framework for an improved immunotherapeutic strategy for combating solid tumors.

Soluble CD23 monomers inhibit and oligomers stimulate IGE synthesis in human B cells

The low affinity IgE receptor, CD23, is implicated in IgE regulation and the pathogenesis of allergic disease. CD23 is a type II integral membrane protein, comprising a lectin "head," N-terminal "stalk," and C-terminal "tail" in the extracellular sequence. Endogenous proteases cleave CD23 in the stalk and the tail to release soluble fragments that either stimulate or inhibit IgE synthesis in human B cells. The molecular basis of these paradoxical activities is not understood. We have characterized three fragments of CD23, monomeric derCD23, monomeric exCD23, and oligomeric lzCD23. We show that the monomers inhibit and the oligomer stimulates IgE synthesis in human B cells after heavy chain switching to IgE. CD23 fragments could be targets for therapeutic intervention in allergic disease.

Transcription of Ig Germline Genes in Single Human B Cells and the Role of Cytokines in Isotype Determination

We have developed a critical test of the chromatin accessibility model of Ig isotype determination in which local unfolding of chromatin higher order structure (chromatin accessibility) in the region of specific germline genes in the H chain locus determines the Ab class to be expressed in the B cell. We show that multiple germline genes are constitutively transcribed in the majority of naive human B cells in a population. Thus, because chromatin in its higher order structure cannot be transcribed, the entire Ig H chain locus must be unfolded in naive B cells. We have also established that IL-4 and anti-CD40 act by enhancing transcription in the majority of cells, rather than by activating transcription in more of the cells. Transcriptional activity in the human H chain locus rules out the perturbation of chromatin higher order structure as a factor in isotype determination. We have also found that the levels of germline gene transcription cannot fully account for the levels of secretion of the different Ig isotypes, and that secretion of IgE, in particular, is suppressed relative to that of IgG.

The biology of IGE and the basis of allergic disease

Allergic individuals exposed to minute quantities of allergen experience an immediate response. Immediate hypersensitivity reflects the permanent sensitization of mucosal mast cells by allergen-specific IgE antibodies bound to their high-affinity receptors (FcepsilonRI). A combination of factors contributes to such long-lasting sensitization of the mast cells. They include the homing of mast cells to mucosal tissues, the local synthesis of IgE, the induction of FcepsilonRI expression on mast cells by IgE, the consequent downregulation of FcgammaR (through an insufficiency of the common gamma-chains), and the exceptionally slow dissociation of IgE from FcepsilonRI. To understand the mechanism of the immediate hypersensitivity phenomenon, we need explanations of why IgE antibodies are synthesized in preference to IgG in mucosal tissues and why the IgE is so tenaciously retained on mast cell-surface receptors. There is now compelling evidence that the microenvironment of mucosal tissues of allergic disease favors class switching to IgE; and the exceptionally high affinity of IgE for FcepsilonRI can now be interpreted in terms of the recently determined crystal structures of IgE-FcepsilonRI and IgG-FcgammaR complexes. The rate of local IgE synthesis can easily compensate for the rate of the antibody dissociation from its receptors on mucosal mast cells. Effective mechanisms ensure that allergic reactions are confined to mucosal tissues, thereby minimizing the risk of systemic anaphylaxis.

TNFR-associated factor family protein expression in normal tissues and lymphoid malignancies

TNFR-associated factors (TRAFs) constitute a family of adapter proteins that associate with particular TNF family receptors. Humans and mice contain six TRAF genes, but little is known about their in vivo expression at the single cell level. The in vivo locations of TRAF1, TRAF2, TRAF5, and TRAF6 were determined in human and mouse tissues by immunohistochemistry. Striking diversity was observed in the patterns of immunostaining obtained for each TRAF family protein, suggesting their expression is independently regulated in a cell type-specific manner. Dynamic regulation of TRAFs was observed in cultured PBLs, where anti-CD3 Abs, mitogenic lectins, and ILs induced marked increases in the steady-state levels of TRAF1, TRAF2, TRAF5, and TRAF6. TRAF1 was also highly inducible by CD40 ligand in cultured germinal center B cells, whereas TRAF2, TRAF3, TRAF5, and TRAF6 were relatively unchanged. Analysis of 83 established human tumor cell lines by semiquantitative immunoblotting methods revealed tendencies of certain cancer types to express particular TRAFs. For example, expression of TRAF1 was highly restricted, with B cell lymphomas consistently expressing this TRAF family member. Consistent with results from tumor cell lines, immunohistochemical analysis of 232 non-Hodgkin lymphomas revealed TRAF1 overexpression in 112 (48%) cases. TRAF1 protein levels were also elevated in circulating B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia specimens (n = 49) compared with normal peripheral blood B cells (p = 0.01), as determined by immunoblotting. These findings contribute to an improved understanding of the cell-specific roles of TRAFs in normal tissues and provide evidence of altered TRAF1 expression in lymphoid malignancies.

CD5-positive and CD5-negative human B cells converge to an indistinguishable population on signalling through B-cell receptors and CD40

Whether CD5 on B cells marks a subset functionally distinct from the conventional CD5 negative (CD5neg) adult population or is more an indicator of activation, remains contentious. Here we have investigated whether CD5 positive (CD5pos) and CD5neg B cells can be distinguished in terms of their response to surrogate signals aimed to model, in vitro, T-cell dependent (TD) and T-independent (TI) encounters with antigen in vivo: the predominantly CD5pos B-cell population found in cord blood, CD5 B cells positively selected from tonsils and their CD5neg counterparts, were compared. Neonatal B cells displayed a near-identical phenotype to that of adult CD5pos B cells, being characterized by uniform immunoglobulin M (IgM), immunoglobulin D (IgD), CD23 and CD44 coexpression. When cultured with anti-IgM maintained at high density on CD32-tranfected mouse L cells to model TI responses or on CD40 ligand (CD40L)-bearing L cells (with or without captured anti-IgM) to model TD encounters, DNA synthesis was stimulated to a similar extent in all three populations. Focusing on CD5 and CD23, we found that - although the signals delivered promoted distinct profiles of expression - under each condition of activation, the phenotypes that emerged for adult CD5pos and CD5neg B cells were remarkably similar. Neonatal B cells displayed a greater diminution in CD5 expression than adult CD5pos B cells following CD40 signals but otherwise the two populations again behaved similarly. The inclusion of interleukin-4 (IL-4) to cultures where cells were costimulated via surface (s)IgM and CD40 resulted in a complete loss of CD5 expression and a corresponding hyperexpression of CD23, irrespective of the population studied. The near-identical response of CD5pos and CD5neg B cells to surrogate TD or TI signals in vitro and their convergence to indistinguishable phenotypes is wholly supportive of CD5 being a fluctuating marker of activation rather than it delineating functionally distinct subsets.

The extrafollicular-to-follicular transition of human B lymphocytes: induction of functional globotriaosylceramide (CD77) on high threshold occupancy of CD40

Amongst lymphocytes, expression of CD77 (globotriaosylceramide, Gb3) is exclusive to B cells of the germinal center (GC). Its acquisition by extrafollicular B cells may thus herald their commitment to a follicular response. Here we show that high threshold occupancy of CD40 by its cognate ligand (CD40L) promotes rapid induction of CD77 expression in non-GC (CD38(lo)) B cells. The kinetics of CD77 acquisition mirrored those of GC-related markers CD95 and CD86 but contrasted with the more delayed increase in CD38 expression. Induction of CD77 was not a simple consequence of cell cycle entry: other conditions of stimulation equally capable of driving proliferation failed to promote CD77 expression. CD77 was functional in that cells were now sensitive to Verotoxin-1, an Escherichia coli-derived ligand of Gb3. These data indicate that acquisition by extrafollicular B cells of CD77 results from high threshold occupancy of CD40, a situation that should be reached physiologically only once a critical level of T cell priming has been achieved.

Correlation between the avidity of mouse-human chimeric IgG subclass monoclonal antibodies measured by solid-phase elution ELISA and biospecific interaction analysis (BIA)

In order to validate a simple solid phase assay designed to measure antibody avidity, the avidities of chimeric mouse-human monoclonal antibodies specific for the hapten 4-hydroxy-3-nitrophenyl (NIP) were measured by a thiocyanate elution based ELISA method and compared to the binding kinetics as measured by biospecific interaction analysis (BIA). Despite possessing identical variable regions, the IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4 antibodies differed in their binding characteristics as measured by both techniques. Thiocyanate elution ELISA ranked the antibody avidity in the order IgG4 > IgG2 > IgG3. Biospecific interaction analysis permitted the determination of association and dissociation constants for the three chimeric antibodies. When compared, the affinity constants (K) of the three antibodies ranked in the following order; IgG4 > IgG2 > IgG3. The good agreement between the elution ELISA and BIA avidity ranking suggests that the simple ELISA method reflects the antibody binding characteristics for the three monoclonal antibodies investigated and thus may provide a simple technique to rank antibody avidity.

Human constant regions influence the antibody binding characteristics of mouse-human chimeric IgG subclasses

Although antibody affinity is primarily determined by immunoglobulin variable region structure human IgG antibodies of the four subclasses specific for the same antigen have been shown to differ in their affinity. To explore the influence of the immunoglobulin constant region on functional antibody affinity, a set of V region identical mouse-human chimeric IgG subclasses specific for TAG72 (tumour-associated glycoprotein) were studied. Biomolecular interaction analysis (BIA) was used to determine the binding kinetics of whole IgG subclasses and F(ab')2 fragments. Despite identical V regions, binding kinetics differed for the four subclasses. The apparent dissociation rate constants of the intact immunoglobulins ranked IgG4 < IgG3 < IgG2 < IgG1. In contrast, analysis of the binding characteriztics of the F(ab')2 fragments derived from IgG1, IgG2 and IgG4 revealed identical binding kinetics. The structure of the constant regions of the humanized IgG subclass antibodies clearly influenced functional antibody affinity, as has been described for the murine IgG subclasses. The exact mechanism for this phenomenon remains obscure but such differences should be taken into account when designing or choosing antibodies for therapeutic use.