IDeAS: automated design tool for hetero-chiral protein folds

Incorporating D amino acids in the protein design alphabet can in principle multiply the design space by many orders of magnitude. All native proteins are polymers composed of L chiral amino acids. Practically limitless in diversity over amino acid sequences, protein structure is limited in folds and thus shapes, principally due to the poly L stereochemistry of their backbone. To diversify shapes, we introduced both L- and D α-amino acids as design alphabets to explore the possibility of generating novel folds, varied in chemical as well as stereo-chemical sequence. Now, to have stereochemically-defined proteins tuned chemically, we present the Inverse Design and Automation Software, IDeAS. Retro-fitting side chains on a backbone with L and D stereochemistry, the software demonstrate functional fits over stereo-chemically diverse folds in a range of applications of interest in protein design.

Automated design evolution of stereochemically randomized protein foldamers

Diversification of chain stereochemistry opens up the possibilities of an 'in principle' increase in the design space of proteins. This huge increase in the sequence and consequent structural variation is aimed at the generation of smart materials. To diversify protein structure stereochemically, we introduced L- and D-α-amino acids as the design alphabet. With a sequence design algorithm, we explored the usage of specific variables such as chirality and the sequence of this alphabet in independent steps. With molecular dynamics, we folded stereochemically diverse homopolypeptides and evaluated their 'fitness' for possible design as protein-like foldamers. We propose a fitness function to prune the most optimal fold among 1000 structures simulated with an automated repetitive simulated annealing molecular dynamics (AR-SAMD) approach. The highly scored poly-leucine fold with sequence lengths of 24 and 30 amino acids were later sequence-optimized using a Dead End Elimination cum Monte Carlo based optimization tool. This paper demonstrates a novel approach for the de novo design of protein-like foldamers.

N-terminal diproline and charge group effects on the stabilization of helical conformation in alanine-based short peptides: CD studies with water and methanol as solvent

Protein folding problem remains a formidable challenge as main chain, side chain and solvent interactions remain entangled and have been difficult to resolve. Alanine-based short peptides are promising models to dissect protein folding initiation and propagation structurally as well as energetically. The effect of N-terminal diproline and charged side chains is assessed on the stabilization of helical conformation in alanine-based short peptides using circular dichroism (CD) with water and methanol as solvent. A1 (Ac-Pro-Pro-Ala-Lys-Ala-Lys-Ala-Lys-Ala-NH₂ ) is designed to assess the effect of N-terminal homochiral diproline and lysine side chains to induce helical conformation. A2 (Ac-Pro-Pro-Glu-Glu-Ala-Ala-Lys-Lys-Ala-NH₂ ) and A3 (Ac-dPro-Pro-Glu-Glu-Ala-Ala-Lys-Lys-Ala-NH₂ ) with N-terminal homochiral and heterochiral diproline, respectively, are designed to assess the effect of Glu...Lys (i, i + 4) salt bridge interactions on the stabilization of helical conformation. The CD spectra of A1, A2 and A3 in water manifest different amplitudes of the observed polyproline II (PPII) signals, which indicate different conformational distributions of the polypeptide structure. The strong effect of solvent substitution from water to methanol is observed for the peptides, and CD spectra in methanol evidence A2 and A3 as helical folds. Temperature-dependent CD spectra of A1 and A2 in water depict an isodichroic point reflecting coexistence of two conformations, PPII and β-strand conformation, which is consistent with the previous studies. The results illuminate the effect of N-terminal diproline and charged side chains in dictating the preferences for extended-β, semi-extended PPII and helical conformation in alanine-based short peptides. The results of the present study will enhance our understanding on stabilization of helical conformation in short peptides and hence aid in the design of novel peptides with helical structures. Copyright © 2017 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Scrutiny of electrostatic-driven conformational ordering of polypeptide chains in DMSO: a study with a model oligopeptide

The molecular mechanism of DMSO-induced stabilisation of β-sheets is attributed to the combination of polar electrostatic interactions among side chains, and backbone desolvation through bulky side chains which promotes backbone hydrogen bonding.

Automated protein design: Landmarks and operational principles

Protein design has an eventful history spanning over three decades, with handful of success stories reported, and numerous failures not reported. Design practices have benefited tremendously from improvements in computer hardware and advances in scientific algorithms. Though protein folding problem still remains unsolved, the possibility of having multiple sequence solutions for a single fold makes protein design a more tractable problem than protein folding. One of the most significant advancement in this area is the implementation of automated design algorithms on pre-defined templates or completely new folds, optimized through deterministic and heuristic search algorithms. This progress report provides a succinct presentation of important landmarks in automated design attempts, followed by brief account of operational principles in automated design methods.

Computational scrutiny of the effect of N-terminal proline and residue stereochemistry in the nucleation of α-helix fold

N-Terminal l- to d-residue mutation nucleate helical fold in Ac–^DAla–^LAla₃–NHMe (Ib, m2), Ac–^DPro–^LAla₃–NHMe (IIb, m1), and Ac–^DPro–^LPro–^LAla₂–NHMe (IIIb, m2) peptides.

Probing the role of electrostatics of polypeptide main-chain in protein folding by perturbing N-terminal residue stereochemistry: DFT study with oligoalanine models

Energetics of folding (ΔH_E→F, in kcal mol⁻¹) from the extended (E) structure to the folded (F) structure for Ia and Ib critically depend on the geometrical relationship between the backbone peptide units of the polypeptide structure.

Biomimetic design: a programmed tetradecapeptide folds and auto-dimerizes as a stereochemically articulated receptor protein

Treating protein-structure evolution as a hierarchy of selections, a fourteen residue polypeptide was made as a C2 symmetric receptor structure in mimicry of HIV protease. This shows the value of a biomimetic algorithm and of stereochemistry as a variable in protein design.

Algorithm to design inhibitors using stereochemically mixed l,d polypeptides: Validation against HIV protease

Polypeptides have potential to be designed as drugs or inhibitors against the desired targets. In polypeptides, every chiral α-amino acid has enantiomeric structural possibility to become l or d amino acids and can be used as design monomer. Among the various possibilities, use of stereochemistry as a design tool has potential to determine both functional specificity and metabolic stability of the designed polypeptides. The polypeptides with mixed l,d amino acids are a class of peptidomimitics, an attractive drug like molecules and also less susceptible to proteolytic activities. Therefore in this study, a three step algorithm is proposed to design the polypeptides against desired drug targets. For this, all possible configurational isomers of mixed l,d polyleucine (Ac-Leu8-NHMe) structure were randomly modeled with simulated annealing molecular dynamics and the resultant library of discrete folds were scored against HIV protease as a model target. The best scored folds of mixed l,d structures were inverse optimized for sequences in situ and the resultant sequences as inhibitors were validated for conformational integrity using molecular dynamics. This study presents and validates an algorithm to design polypeptides of mixed l,d structures as drugs/inhibitors by inverse fitting them as molecular ligands against desired target.

De novo design of stereochemically-bent sixteen-residue β-hairpin as a hydrolase mimic

Stepwise design of sixteen-residue β-hairpin as a hydrolase mimic involving fold design by stereochemical mutation followed by inverse-design of sequence.

Design of a zinc-finger hydrolase with a synthetic αββ protein

Recent advances in protein design have opened avenues for the creation of artificial enzymes needed for biotechnological and pharmaceutical applications. However, designing efficient enzymes remains an unrealized ambition, as the design must incorporate a catalytic apparatus specific for the desired reaction. Here we present a de novo design approach to evolve a minimal carbonic anhydrase mimic. We followed a step-by-step design of first folding the main chain followed by sequence variation for substrate binding and catalysis. To optimize the fold, we designed an αββ protein based on a Zn-finger. We then inverse-designed the sequences to provide stability to the fold along with flexibility of linker regions to optimize Zn binding and substrate hydrolysis. The resultant peptides were synthesized and assessed for Zn and substrate binding affinity by fluorescence and ITC followed by evaluation of catalytic efficiency with UV-based enzyme kinetic assays. We were successful in mimicking carbonic anhydrase activity in a peptide of twenty two residues, using p-nitrophenyl acetate as a CO2 surrogate. Although our design had modest activity, being a simple structure is an advantage for further improvement in efficiency. Our approach opens a way forward to evolving an efficient biocatalyst for any industrial reaction of interest.

Redox specificity of 2-hydroxyacid-coupled NAD(+)/NADH dehydrogenases: a study exploiting "reactive" arginine as a reporter of protein electrostatics

With "reactive" arginine as a kinetic reporter, 2-hydroxyacid dehydrogenases are assessed in basis of their specialization as NAD(+)-reducing or NADH-oxidizing enzymes. Specifically, M4 and H4 lactate dehydrogenases (LDHs) and cytoplasmic and mitochondrial malate dehydrogenases (MDHs) are compared to assess if their coenzyme specificity may involve electrostatics of cationic or neutral nicotinamide structure as the basis. The enzymes from diverse eukaryote and prokaryote sources thus are assessed in "reactivity" of functionally-critical arginine as a function of salt concentration and pH. Electrostatic calculations were performed on "reactive" arginines and found good correspondence with experiment. The reductive and oxidative LDHs and MDHs are assessed in their count over ionizable residues and in placement details of the residues in their structures as proteins. The variants found to be high or low in ΔpKa of "reactive" arginine are found to be also strong or weak cations that preferentially oxidize NADH (neutral nicotinamide structure) or reduce NAD(+) (cationic nicotinamide structure). The ionized groups of protein structure may thus be important to redox specificity of the enzyme on basis of electrostatic preference for the oxidized (cationic nicotinamide) or reduced (neutral nicotinamide) coenzyme. Detailed comparisons of isozymes establish that the residues contributing in their redox specificity are scrambled in structure of the reductive enzyme.

Aromatic interactions at atom-to-atom contact and just beyond: a case study of protein interactions of NAD⁺/NADP⁺

We probed aromatic-protein interactions based on specificity of enrichment of protein residues across a contact-based cutoff. Thus, 155 protein-NAD(+)/NADP(+) complexes were analyzed for enrichments within 10Å of centroids of aromatic groups of the ligand when the residues were contacted and not contacted with the aromatic ligand. Specifically, neutral-adenine and cationic-nicotinamide groups of the oxidized coenzymes evoked interest to know whether the contrast of charge or the shared aromaticity will manifest in the enrichments across the cutoff. We found that when in contact, the enrichments are highly specific for nicotinamide and adenine-aromatic structures, and thus possibly complex in the basis, but when not in contact, they are generic for charge and aromaticity of the structures, and thus possibly specific in the basis. The order of enrichments over the contacted residues is Tyr>Cys>Thr>His>Asn>Ser>Met>Ile>Phe against nicotinamide-π(+) structure and Asp>Ile>Thr>His>Arg>Tyr>Gly>Val against adenine-π structure, while the order over the non-contacted residues is Trp>Gly>His>Asn>Cys>Met>Tyr>Ser>Thr>Phe against nicotinamide-π(+) structure and Asn>Thr>Ser>Gly>Cys>His>Val against adenine-π structure. Neutral Trp, His, Tyr, and Phe, but not cationic Arg, are thus the non-contacted residues enriched specifically against nicotinamide-π(+) structure, while Asn, Gly, Thr, Ser, and Cys are the non-contacted residues enriched generically against both the nicotinamide-π(+) and adenine-π aromatic structures. By analyzing the enriched groups in their geometric specificities, we found that, the enrichments against nicotinamide cation manifest the specificity expected of cation-π interaction and against nicotinamide- and adenine-aromatic groups manifest the specificity expected of dipole-π interaction. The cutoff-based method is proven valuable in probing protein-ligand interactions in the physics involved.

Protein homomers in point-group assembly: symmetry making and breaking are specific and distinctive in their codes of chemical alphabet in side chains

Oligomerizing to point-group symmetry, protein oligomers need to have the symmetry broken for biologically crucial functions, such as, allosteric regulation, enzyme catalysis, and so forth. In the making of symmetry, based on self assembly, and the breaking of symmetry, based on intermolecular interactions, proteins may manifest, like their other functions, specific scripts over the coding alphabet in side chains. To address the possibility, we analyzed 82 protein homodimers in their C(2)-symmetry-related side chains across noncrystallographic interfaces, to know if they may be identical or distinct in conformation, and thus conserved or broken in symmetry. We find the propensity to conformational mismatch across interfaces correlated with side-chain chemical structure, low to very low in aromatic Trp, Tyr, His, Phe, and Arg, and high to very high in aliphatic Val, Pro, Met, Glu, Ser, Lys, Gln, Asn, and Asp, related not to polarity but, interestingly, to aromaticity of the structure. The organizational plan having aromatics embedded in a hub of aliphatic-nonpolar groups and a surrounding rim of aliphatic-polar groups, called "hotspot," has been known to direct protein-protein interaction. Finding conformational-mismatch propensities of side chains congruous with their specific chemical roles in protein-protein interaction, we propose that aromatic side chains will drive protein homomers to high symmetry, while polar- and nonpolar aliphatic side chains will drive them to the functionally-necessitated breaks of symmetry. Side chains are in their roles as protein-coding alphabet illuminated in the physics, which is discussed.

Electrostatics-defying interaction between arginine termini as a thermodynamic driving force in protein-protein interaction

Apparent electrostatics-defying clustering of arginines attributed as screening effect of solvent is in this study examined as a possible thermodynamic driving force in protein-protein interaction. A dataset of 266 protein dimers is found to have approximately 22% arginines mutually paired and approximately 17% pairs in interaction across interfaces and thus putative "hotspots" of protein-protein interaction. The pairing, uncorrelated with inter or intramolecular context, could be contributing in protein folding as well, and, uncorrelated with solvent access, could be driven by effects that are generic to solvent and protein structures. Mutually stacked at shorter distances but in diverse geometrical modes otherwise, the cations tend to be in gross deficit of hydrogen-bond partners, and contributing electrostatics across protein-protein interface that, on average, is repulsive for protein-protein interaction. Embedded in local environment enriched in polarizable residues, aromatic, aliphatic, and anionic, the arginines may contribute to protein-protein interaction via environmental polarization response to electrostatics of cation clustering, a possible new principle in molecular recognition.

Protein design with L- and D-alpha-amino acid structures as the alphabet

Summarizing the implications of homochiral structures in interpeptide interactions, not only in the topology but also possibly in the physics of protein folding, this Account provides an overview of the concept of shape-specific protein design using D- and L-(alpha)amino acid structures as the alphabet. The molecular shapes accessible in de novo protein design are stereochemically defined. Indeed, the defining consideration for shape specificity in proteins to be alpha-helix/beta-sheet composites is the L configuration of the alpha-amino acid structures. The stereospecificity in shapes implies that protein shapes may be diversifiable stereochemically, that is, designable de novo, using D and L structures as the alphabet. Indeed, augmented with D enantiomers, Nature's alphabet will expand greatly in the diversity of polypeptide stereoisomers, for example, from 1(30) to 2(30)--that is, from one to ca. one billion--for a modestly sized 30-residue polypeptide. Furthermore, with each isomer having conformers stereospecific to its structure, molecular folds of specific shapes may be approachable sequentially when D and L structures are used as the alphabet. Illustrating the promise, 14-20-residue bracelet-, boat-, canoe-, and cup-shaped molecular folds were designed stereochemically or implemented as specific sequence plans in the D- and L-alpha-amino acid alphabet. In practical terms, canonical poly-L peptide folds were modified to the desired shapes via stereochemical mutations invoking enantiomer symmetries in the Ramachandran phi,psi space as the logic. For example, in designing the boat-shaped fold, the canonical beta-hairpin was reengineered in its flat planar structure via multiple coordinated L-to-D mutations in its position specific cross-strand neighbor residues, upturning its ends enclosing six side chains in a molecular cleft. While affirming the generality of the approach, the 20-residue molecular canoe and the 14-residue molecular cup are also presented as examples of the scope of functional design. The canoe, possessing alkali cation-specific catgrips in its main chain, and the cup, featuring an organic cation-specific aromatic triad in its side chains, do indeed display desired specificities in their ligand binding. Stereochemistry is, therefore, the crucial specifier of protein shapes and valuable as the tool for shape-specific protein design. Proteins in general, whether poly-L or mixed-D,L, require sequence effects of amino acid side chain structures for their stability, if not also for specifying them conformationally. The principles underlying these phenomena remain a puzzle, but studies invoking a stereochemical mutation approach to the problem have suggested that the poly-L structure may be crucial to the principles of sequential encoding of protein structures in amino acid side chains as the alphabet.

A mixed-α,β miniprotein stereochemically reprogrammed to high-binding affinity for acetylcholine

The protein-structure space is limited to L configuration in the asymmetric alpha-amino acid structures; the function space, on other hand, seems limitless because of the chemical diversity in the amino acid side chain structures. The chemical diversity in side chain structure may be multiplied beneficially with the stereochemical diversity in main chain structure; thus, de novo protein design may be explored for customizing molecular structures stereochemically and molecular functions chemically. Illustrating de novo design in the structure space of L and D alphabet, canonical all-beta folds of poly-L structure were reprogrammed as bracelet, boat, and canoe-shaped molecules-the "boat" as a receptor-like pocket and the "canoe" as a metal-ion receptor-simply by mutating specific L-amino acid residues to the corresponding D stereochemical structure. Demonstrating customization of molecular shape stereochemically and function chemically, a 15-residue mixed-alpha, beta miniprotein of canonical poly-L structure is now reprogrammed stereochemically as a cup-shaped receptor for acetylcholine via cation-pi interaction with a triad of aromatic side chains placed in mimicry of the acetylcholine-receptor sites both natural and artificial. Evidence from CD, fluorescence, NMR, DSC, ITC, MD, and molecular-docking studies is presented to show that a rationally designed 15-residue mixed-L, D peptide is a cooperatively ordered molecular fold in the stereochemically specified molecular morphology, submicromolar in affinity of acetylcholine and thus an acetylcholine receptor exceptionally small and simple. .

Analysis of the structural consensus of the zinc coordination centers of metalloprotein structures

In a recent sequence-analysis study it was concluded that up to 10% of the human proteome could be comprised of zinc proteins, quite varied in the functional spread. The native structures of only few of the proteins are actually established. The elucidation of rest of the sequences of not just human but even other actively investigated genomes may benefit from knowledge of the structural consensus of the zinc-binding centers of the currently known zinc proteins. Nearly four hundred X-ray and NMR structures in the database of zinc-protein structures available as of April 2007 were investigated for geometry and conformation in the zinc-binding centers; separately for the structural and catalytic proteins and individually in the zinc centers coordinated to three and four amino-acid ligands. Enhanced cysteine involvement in agreement with the observation in human proteome has been detected in contrast with previous reports. Deviations from ideal coordination geometries are detected, possible underlying reasons are investigated, and correlations of geometry and conformation in zinc-coordination centers with protein function are established, providing possible benchmarks for putative zinc-binding patterns of the burgeoning genome data.

A double catgrip mixed l and d mini protein only 20 residues long

Stereochemistry limits but also defines proteins, as conformational constructs stereospecific for poly-L structure. Employed as a variable in sequence, stereochemistry could make proteins customizable in the letters of L and D amino acid alphabet. In proof of concept, we previously demonstrated stereochemical reengineering of canonical beta-hairpins as bracelet and boat shaped molecules. Illustrating the prospect for functional design, a 20-residue four-stranded mini-beta protein is now customized stereochemically as a canoe shaped molecule. A conformational construct of four side by side hydrogen-bonded strands in alternately (l)beta, (d)beta conformation, joined via Type-II/II' beta-turns, is planned to be preponderantly apolar in beta-sheet favoring residues, interspersing two ion pairs, and suitably L and D in sequence. Synthesis followed by MD, NMR, CD, and MALDI-MS studies established the molecule as a canoe shaped fold in water, demonstrable in affinity of alkali and alkaline-earth metal ions as expected given its catgrip like elements. Another success in accomplishing a synthetic miniprotein complex in stereochemistry and stereospecific in conformation, exceptionally small yet functional in metal ion affinity, affirms the value in combined L and D alphabet in programming molecular shapes and functions stereochemically.

Computational design of proteins stereochemically optimized in size, stability, and folding speed

Artificial proteins potentially barrier-free in the folding kinetics are approached computationally under the guidance of protein-folding theories. The smallest and fastest folding globular protein triple-helix-bundle (THB) is so modified as to minimize or eliminate its presumed barriers in folding speed. As the barriers may reside in the ordering of either secondary or tertiary structure, the elements of both secondary and tertiary structure in the protein are targeted for prenucleation with suitable stereochemically constrained amino acid residues. The required elements of topology and sequence for the THB are optimized independently; first the topology is optimized with simulated annealing in polypeptides of highly simplified alphabet; next, the sequence in side chains is optimized using the standard inverse design methods. The resultant three best-adapted THBs, variable in topology and distinctive in sequences, are assessed by comparing them with a few benchmark proteins. The results of mainly molecular dynamics (MD) comparisons, undertaken in explicit water at different temperatures, show that the designed sequences are favorably placed against the chosen benchmarks as THB proteins potentially thermostable in the native folds. Folding simulation experiments with MD establish that the designed sequences are rapid in the folding of individual helices, but not in the evolution of tertiary structure; energetic cum topological frustrations remain but could be the artifacts of the starting conformations that were chosen in the THBs in the folding simulations. Overall, a practical high-throughput approach for de novo protein design has been developed that may have fruitful application for any type of tertiary structure.

The Link between Sequence and Conformation in Protein Structures Appears To Be Stereochemically Established

In search of the link between sequence and conformation in protein structures, we perform molecular dynamics analysis of the effect of stereochemical mutation in end-protected octa-alanine Ac-Ala8-NHMe from poly-L to an alternating-L,D structure. The mutation has a dramatic effect, transforming the peptide from a condition of extreme sensitivity to one of extreme insensitivity to solvent. Examining the molecular folds of poly-L and alternating-L,D structure in atomistic detail, we find them to differ in the relationship between peptide dipolar interactions at the local and nonlocal levels, either conflicting or harmonious depending upon the chain stereochemistry. The stereochemical transformation of interpeptide electrostatics from a condition of conflict to one of harmony explains the long-standing puzzle of why poly-L and alternating-L,D peptides strongly differ in properties such as "stiffness" and solvent sensitivity. Furthermore, it is possible that poly-L stereochemistry is also the fulcrum of protein sensitivity to the effects of amino acid side-chain structures via dielectric arbitrations in interpeptide electrostatics. Indeed the evidence is accumulating that the amino acid side chains differing in alpha-helix and beta-sheet propensities also differ in their desolvating effects in the adjacent and nearest-neighbor peptides and thus possibly in the solvent screening of peptide dipolar interactions.

The interplay of sequence and stereochemistry in defining conformation in proteins and polypeptides

Sequential specification of conformation in proteins and polypeptides is a triangular interplay involving the system of linked peptides, the sequences in side chains, and water as solvent. Stereochemistry in side chain linkages is obviously important in the interaction between all of the players, but no specification of its explicit role, if any, in linking sequence with conformation has been made. Flory and coworkers made a puzzling observation in 1967 that, when mutated from poly-L to alternating-L,D stereochemical structure, polypeptides will suffer a reduction in overall dimension or characteristic ratio by an astonishing factor of 10 and to a value even lower than that predicted for free rotation (Miller, W. G.; Brant, D. A.; Flory, P. J. J Mol Biol 1967, 23, 67-80). Enquiring into this longstanding puzzle, Durani and coworkers found that the stereochemical modification will also abolish conformational sensitivity in polypeptide structure to solvent, because electrostatic interactions in the system of linked peptides are transformed from a condition of mutual conflict to one of harmony (Ramakrishnan, V.; Ranbhor, R.; Kumar, A.; Durani, S. J Phys Chem B 2006, 110, 9314-9323). Thus, poly-L stereochemistry could be the fulcrum linking sequences with phi,psis in protein and polypeptide structures, via dielectric arbitrations in a conflicting type of interpeptide electrostatics, in agreement with the electrostatic screening model of Avbelj and Moult (Avbelj, F.; Moult, J. Biochemistry 1995, 34, 755-764).

Simulated folding in polypeptides of diversified molecular tacticity: Implications for protein folding and de novo design

Stereochemistry could be a powerful variable for conformational tune up of polypeptides for de novo design. It may be also useful probe of possible role of interamide energetics in selection and stabilization of conformation. The homopolypeptides Ac-Xxx30-NHMe, with Xxx = Ala, Val, and Leu, of diversified stereochemical structure are generated by simulated racemization with a modified GROMOS-96 force field. The polypeptides, and other systematic stereochemical variants, are folded by simulated annealing with another modified GROMOS-96 force field under the dielectric constant values 1, 4, and 10. The resultant 15,000 molecular folds of isotactic (poly-L-chiral), syndiotactic (alternating L,D-chiral), and heterotactic (random-L,D-chiral) stereochemical structure, belonging to three polypeptide series, achieved under three different folding conditions, are assessed statistically for structure-to-energy-to-conformation relationship. The results suggest that interamide electrostatics could be a major factor in secondary-structure selection in polypeptides while main-chain stereochemistry could dictate molecular packing and therefore the relative magnitude of hydrogen-bond and Lennard-Jones (LJ) contributions in conformational energy. A method for computational design of heterotactic molecular folds in polypeptide structure has been developed, and the first road map for a chiral tune up of polypeptide structure based on stereochemical engineering has been laid down. Broad implications for protein structure, folding, and de novo design are briefly discussed.

A small peptide stereochemically customized as a globular fold with a molecular cleft

A boat shaped peptide molecular fold is generated by stereochemical modification of a 20-residue beta-hairpin peptide, making it a promising prototype for future optimization as a molecular receptor.

Existence of Specific “Folds” in Polyproline II Ensembles of an “Unfolded” Alanine Peptide Detected by Molecular Dynamics

Equilibrium ensembles of octaalanine (Ac-Ala8-NHMe) in water, prepared with MD, are analyzed for contributing microstates with an RMSD-based conformational clustering algorithm. The extracted ensemble-averaged properties are in excellent agreement with numerous spectroscopic measurements reported with small alanine model peptides in water. However, the dominantly polyproline II-like ensemble of the peptide is found to be populated with a handful of highly position-specific "folds", including beta-turns, beta-hairpins, and helix nuclei, which could be the "seeds" that initiate proteins along their folding pathways.

Stereospecific peptide folds. A rationally designed molecular bracelet

A canonical planar beta-hairpin peptide, stereochemically reengineered into a semicircular bracelet type motif by L-to-D stereochemical inversion in two pairs of its cross-strand neighbor residues, displays protein like ordering including two-state behavior in H2O, which is unusual for a small peptide of this size.

Mechanism-based protein design: attempted "nucleation-condensation" approach to a possible minimal helix-bundle protein

In an intended mechanism-based de novo approach, a 22-mer peptide was so designed as to make it both a stereochemically nucleatable and hydrophobically condensable minimal globular protein. Framework-like nucleation of a triple-helix bundle was targeted by employing as folding nucleators composite beta-turns that could both nucleate helices and place them in close juxtaposition for possible interhelical interaction. To promote the targeted triple-helix bundle to condense as a globular protein, an amphipathic sequence pattern was adopted for possible hydrophobic interhelical interaction. A predominantly helicogenic 22-mer amphipathic peptide was thus designed, punctuating it with composite type II'-III and type II-Asx type beta-turns as the helix nucleators cum chain reversal elements. The peptide made by solid-phase synthesis was shown by NMR and CD to be a nascent and distorted triple-helix bundle in a trifluoroethanol (TFE)-water mixture, but more or less a random coil in water. A fold nucleation effect is evident in the TFE-water mixture, but apparently the hydrophobic effect cannot sustain the peptide conformational order in water. A lack of synergy between folding nucleation and hydrophobic condensation of the peptide is possible. Indeed, a mismatch between the sequential H,P pattern of the peptide and its nascent-type globular fold in a TFE-water mixture is evident based on a simulated annealing study guided by NMR.

Combined sequence and structure analysis of the fungal laccase family

Plant and fungal laccases belong to the family of multi-copper oxidases and show much broader substrate specificity than other members of the family. Laccases have consequently been of interest for potential industrial applications. We have analyzed the essential sequence features of fungal laccases based on multiple sequence alignments of more than 100 laccases. This has resulted in identification of a set of four ungapped sequence regions, L1-L4, as the overall signature sequences that can be used to identify the laccases, distinguishing them within the broader class of multi-copper oxidases. The 12 amino acid residues in the enzymes serving as the copper ligands are housed within these four identified conserved regions, of which L2 and L4 conform to the earlier reported copper signature sequences of multi-copper oxidases while L1 and L3 are distinctive to the laccases. The mapping of regions L1-L4 on to the three-dimensional structure of the Coprinus cinerius laccase indicates that many of the non-copper-ligating residues of the conserved regions could be critical in maintaining a specific, more or less C-2 symmetric, protein conformational motif characterizing the active site apparatus of the enzymes. The observed intraprotein homologies between L1 and L3 and between L2 and L4 at both the structure and the sequence levels suggest that the quasi C-2 symmetric active site conformational motif may have arisen from a structural duplication event that neither the sequence homology analysis nor the structure homology analysis alone would have unraveled. Although the sequence and structure homology is not detectable in the rest of the protein, the relative orientation of region L1 with L2 is similar to that of L3 with L4. The structure duplication of first-shell and second-shell residues has become cryptic because the intraprotein sequence homology noticeable for a given laccase becomes significant only after comparing the conservation pattern in several fungal laccases. The identified motifs, L1-L4, can be useful in searching the newly sequenced genomes for putative laccase enzymes.

Solution conformation of a rationally designed nonapeptide

Partial 'turn-helix' type modules comprised of LD and DL chiral beta-turns serving as potential helix nucleators have been connected with a view to designing a nascent 'helix-turn-helix' type structure. Conformation of the resultant peptide Boc-(D)Glu-Ala-Aib-Lys-Val-Pro-(D)Asp-Leu-Leu-NHMe has been described in both DMSO and water.

Conformational effects of C(alpha,alpha)-dipropargylglycine as a constrained residue

A useful synthon to approach artificial phenylalanyl peptides in a [2 + 2 + 2] cycloaddition reaction, C(alpha,alpha)-dipropargylglycine (Dprg) is examined for its conformational preferences as a constrained residue. Crystal structure analysis and preliminary NMR results establish possible preference of the residue for folded (alpha) rather than extended (beta) region of the straight phi,psi conformational space. Boc-Dprg-L-Leu-OMe (1) displays two molecular conformations within the same crystallographic asymmetric unit, with Dprg in the alpha(R) or alpha(L) conformation, participating in a type I beta-turn or an alpha(L)-alpha(R)-type fold, in which Leu(2) assumes the alpha(R) conformation stereochemically favored for an L-chiral residue. Boc-Dprg-D-Val-L-Leu-OMe (2) displays a type I' beta-turn conformation in crystal, with both Dprg(1) and D-Val(2) assuming the alpha(L) conformation stereochemically favored for a D-chiral residue, with 4 --> 1 type hydrogen bond linking L-Leu(3) NH with Boc CO. NMR analysis using temperature variation, solvent titration, and a spin probe study suggests a fully solvent-exposed nature of Dprg NH, ruling out a fully extended C(5)-type conformation for this residue, and solvent sequestered nature of L-Leu(3) NH, suggesting possibility of a beta-turn due to Dprg assuming a folded conformation.

Modification of constrained peptides by ring-closing metathesis reaction

Ring-closing metathesis (RCM) with alpha,alpha-diallylglycyl peptides is shown to furnish alpha,alpha-cyclopentenylglycyl peptides as conformationally restrained analogues in the form of post-translational type peptide modification suitable for both peptidomimetic and combinatorial chemistry applications.

Horseradish peroxidase catalyzed degradation of industrially important dyes

Horseradish peroxidase (HRP) is known to degrade certain recalcitrant organic compounds such as phenol and substituted phenols. Here, for the first time we have shown HRP to be effective in degrading and precipitating industrially important azo dyes. For Remazol blue, the enzyme activity was found to be far better at pH 2.5 than at neutral pH. In addition, Remazol blue acts as a strong competitive inhibitor of HRP at neutral pH. Horseradish peroxidase shows broad substrate specificity toward a variety of azo dyes. Kinetic constants (K(m)(app) and V(max)(app)) for two different dyes have been determined. In addition to providing a systematic analysis of the potential of HRP in degradation of dyes, this study opens up a new area on exploration of commercial dyes as inhibitors of enzymes. 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Conformational preferences of heterochiral peptides. Crystal structures of heterochiral peptides Boc-(D) Val-(D) Ala-Leu-Ala-OMe and Boc-Val-Ala-Leu-(D) Ala-OMe--enhanced stability of beta-sheet through C-H...O hydrogen bonds

The crystal structures of Boc-(D) Val-(D) Ala-Leu-Ala-OMe (vaLA) and Boc-Val-Ala-Leu-(D) Ala-OMe (VALa) have been determined. vaLA crystallises in space group P2(1),2(1),2(1), with a = 9.401 (4), b = 17.253 (5), c = 36.276 (9)A. V = 5,884 (3) A3, Z = 8, R = 0.086. VALa crystallises in space group P2(1) with a = 9.683 (9), b = 17.355 (7), c = 18.187 (9) A, beta = 95.84 (8) degrees , V = 3,040(4) A3, Z = 4, R = 0.125. There are two molecules in the asymmetric unit in antiparallel beta-sheet arrangement in both the structures. Several of the Calpha hydrogens are in hydrogen bonding contact with the carbonyl oxygen in the adjacent strand. An analysis of the observed conformational feature of D-chiral amino acid residues in oligopeptides, using coordinates of 123 crystal structures selected from the 1998 release of CSD has been carried out. This shows that all the residues except D-isoleucine prefer both extended and alphaL conformation though the frequence of occurence may not be equal. In addition to this, D-leucine, valine, proline and phenylalanine have assumed alphaR conformations in solid state. D-leucine has a strong preference for helical conformation in linear peptides whereas they prefer an extended conformation in cyclic peptides.

Charge and solvation effects in anion recognition centers: an inquiry exploiting reactive arginines

Following a long-standing suggestion of Riordan et al. [Riordan, J. F., McElvany, K. D., and Borders, C. L., Jr. (1977) Science 195, 884-885], we sought to exploit chemically activated arginines as probes to characterize the microenvironmental effects in enzymes that mediate the recognition of anionic substrates. A micellar simulation study establishes that octylguanidine (OGn) becomes chemically activated upon incorporation into both cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) and Triton X-100 micelles and that the activations correlate with the pKa diminutions induced in its guanidinium group by the effects of electrostatic or nonelectrostatic nature as reflected in the results of pH and salt titration experiments. Next, a protein modification study establishes that the modifiable arginines in a number of enzymes also have diminished pKa's, again due to effects of electrostatic or nonelectrostatic nature as reflected in the results of pH and salt titration experiments. Warwicker's finite difference Poisson--Boltzmann algorithm [Warwicker, J. (1992) J. Mol. Biol. 223, 247-257] is applied to several of the enzymes with available crystal structure coordinates, and indeed, their chemically activated arginines are found to be in an electrostatic microenvironment that can diminish their pKa's, with the magnitudes of these diminutions matching closely the diminutions measured experimentally. Finally, the chemically activated arginines are examined with respect to their atomic atmosphere and are thus found to occur in a local microenvironment that would facilitate their roles as anion anchors. Thus, electrostatic and solvation effects are found to be critical determinants of the arginine role as an anion anchor.

Reengineering a type II beta-turn as a potential helix nucleator. Part I. Crystal structure of Boc-Val-Pro-(D)Asp-Asp-Val-OMe monohydrate

The crystal structure of Boc-Val1-Pro2-(D)Asp3-Asp4-Val5-OMe is described as a type II beta-turn reengineered into a potential helix nucleator. (D)Asp3 in the peptide is responsible for the configurationally guided LD chiral type II beta-turn centered at Pro2-(D)Asp3, as well as the partially developed LL chiral type I beta-turn centered at Asp4-Val5 by acceptance of a conformation nucleating H-bond from Val5NH to its carboxylic oxygen.

Crystal structures of heterochiral peptides. Part II. tert-Boc-valyl-D-alanyl-leucyl-alanyl methoxide

Crystal structure of a heterochiral peptide, viz. Boc-Val1-D-Ala2-Leu3-Ala4-OMe with a D chiral residue in the second position of a sequence, has been determined [a = 40.44(1), b = 4.887(5), c = 15.381(5) A, beta = 109.6(1)degrees, space group C2, Z = 4, R = 0.11]. The peptide is in a parallel beta-sheet structure terminated by a distinct local bend. The structure is established by N-H...O as well as C alpha-H...O hydrogen bonds. The contiguous C alpha-H...O hydrogen bond observed in this structure is an unique observation.

Crystal structures of a D-residue containing tetrapeptides. 1. tert-Boc-D-valyl-alanyl-leucyl-alanyl-methoxide, butanol solvate

The crystal structure of a heterochiral peptide, viz. Boc-D-Val-Ala-Leu-Ala-OMe, with a D-residue in the beginning of the sequence has been determined (a = 9.464(5), b = 35.615(5), c = 9.703(2) A, space group P2(1)2(1)2, Z = 4, R = 0.09). The peptide is in the extended beta-conformation and the packing is stabilised by four N--H ... O hydrogen bonds in an antiparallel beta-sheet arrangement. The solvent molecule is disordered and does not have any specific interactions with the peptide.