Toucan protein is essential for the assembly of syncytial mitotic spindles in Drosophila melanogaster

The toc gene of Drosophila melanogaster encodes a 235-kD polypeptide with a coiled-coil domain, which is highly expressed during oogenesis (Grammont et al., 1997, 2000). We now report the localization of the Toucan protein during early embryonic development. The Toucan protein is present only during the syncytial stages and is associated with the nuclear envelope and the cytoskeletal structures of the syncytial embryo. In anaphase A, Toucan is concentrated at the spindle poles near the minus end of microtubules. This microtubule association is very dynamic during the nuclear cell cycle. Mutant embryos lacking the Toucan protein are blocked in a metaphase-like state. They display abnormal and nonfunctional spindles, characterized by broad poles, detachment of the centrosomes, and failure of migration of the chromosomes. These results strongly suggest that Toucan represents a factor essential for the assembly and the function of the syncytial mitotic spindles.

Differential properties of the two Drosophila gamma-tubulin isotypes

The functional significance of distinct gamma-tubulins in several unrelated eukaryotes remains an enigma due to the difficulties to investigate this question experimentally. Using specific nucleotidic and immunological probes, we have demonstrated that the two divergent Drosophila gamma-tubulins, gamma-tub23C and gamma-tub37CD, are expressed in cultured cells. Gamma-tub37CD is constantly detected at the centrosome and absent in the mitotic spindle, while gamma-tub23C is extensively recruited to the centrosome during mitosis and relocalizes in the mitotic spindle. The two gamma-tubulins exhibit distinct biochemical properties. Gamma-tub23C is present in the soluble gamma-tubulin small complexes (10S) and gamma-tubulin big complexes (35S) and is loosely associated to the cytoskeleton. In contrast, gamma-tub37CD is undetectable in the soluble fraction and exhibits a tight binding to the centrosome. Syncytial embryos also contain the two gamma-tubulin isotypes, which are differentially recruited at the centrosome. Gamma-tub23C is present in the 10S soluble complexes only, while y-tub37CD is contained in the two soluble complexes and is recruited at the centrosome where it exhibits an heterogeneous binding. These results demonstrated an heterogeneity of the two Drosophila gamma-tubulin isotypes both in the cytoskeletal and the soluble fractions. They suggest the direct implication of the 35S complex in the centrosomal recruitment of gamma-tubulin and a conditional functional redundancy between the two gamma-tubulins.

Phosphorylated proteins are involved in sister-chromatid arm cohesion during meiosis I

Sister-chromatid arm cohesion is lost during the metaphase I/anaphase I transition to allow homologue separation. To obtain needed information on this process we have analysed in grasshopper bivalents the sequential release of arm cohesion in relation to the behaviour of chromatid axes. Results show that sister axes are associated during early metaphase I but separate during late metaphase I leading to a concomitant change of chromosome structure that implies the loss of sister-kinetochore cohesion. Afterwards, homologues initiate their separation asynchronously depending on their size, and number and position of chiasmata. In all bivalents thin chromatin strands at the telomeres appeared as the last point of contact between sister chromatids. Additionally, we have analysed the participation of phosphoproteins recognised by the MPM-2 monoclonal antibody against mitotic phosphoproteins in arm cohesion in bivalents and two different kinds of univalents. Results show the absence of MPM-2 phosphoproteins at the interchromatid domain in mitotic chromosomes and meiotic univalents, but their presence in metaphase I bivalents. These phosphoproteins are lost at the onset of anaphase I. Taken together, these data have prompted us to propose a ‘working’ model for the release of arm cohesion during meiosis I. The model suggests that MPM-2 phosphoproteins may act as cohesive proteins associating sister axes. Their modification, once all bivalents are correctly aligned at the metaphase plate, would trigger a change of chromosome structure and the sequential release of sister-kinetochore, arm, and telomere cohesions.

Microtubule polyglutamylation in Drosophila melanogaster brain and testis

The presence of glutamylated tubulin, a widespread posttranslational modification of alpha- and beta-tubulin, has been investigated in Drosophila melanogaster using the specific monoclonal antibody GT335. We show here that this modification is strongly detected in brain and testis whereas other tissues analyzed did not appear to contain any glutamylated isoforms. Neuronal microtubules are glutamylated on alpha-tubulin only whereas sperm flagella showed a strong modification of both alpha- and beta-tubulin. These results argue for an essential role for glutamylation in differentiation processes that require microtubule stabilization.

The centrosome cycle in syncytial Drosophila embryos analyzed by energy filtering transmission electron microscopy

We have investigated the centrosome cycle in Drosophila syncytial embryos at the ultrastructural level by using a transmission electron microscope equipped with an electron energy filtering device (Omega filter). This new technique allows the study of uncontrasted thick sections with a high resolution. We have been able to characterize two classes of filamentous structures in the centrosomal apparatus that were not detectable on ultrathin sections. These new filamentous structures are: 1) a very orderly lattice that connects the two centrioles during mitosis; and 2) a fibrogranular connection between the centrosome and the nuclear envelope. The intercentriolar linkage could be involved in the precise timing of separation of the centrioles during late anaphase. The centrosome-nuclear envelope connection probably prevents the loss of centrosomes in this syncytial environment, and ensures the proper migration of the centrosomes along the surface of the nucleus. This connection may also couple the nuclei to the cytoskeleton, thus allowing their migration and their anchorage to the cortex at the blastoderm stage. This thick section analysis has also allowed us to precisely reconstitute the centrosome cycle. From their separation at telophase and throughout most of interphase, centrosomes are composed of a single centriole. We conclude that in the early Drosophila embryo there is an unusual delay between the separation of the parent centrioles and their duplication. This leaves a surprisingly short time to assemble a daughter centriole.

Drosophila centrosomes are unable to trigger parthenogenetic development of Xenopus eggs

Centrosomes are powerful and exclusive parthenogenetic agents in the Xenopus egg. We have previously shown that heterologous centrosomes from various vertebrate species were able to promote egg cleavage in Xenopus and that human centrosome activity was associated with an insoluble proteinacious structure that is not significantly simpler than the native centrosome. In this work, we have investigated the parthenogenetic capacity of more evolutionary distant centrosomes. We show that centrosomes devoid of centrioles, such as SPBs isolated from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, do not form asters of microtubules in cytoplasmic extracts from Xenopus eggs, and are inactive in the parthenogenetic test. We further show that Drosophila centrosomes which possess a typical centriole architecture, and are quite active to nucleate microtubules in Xenopus cytoplasmic extracts, are unable to trigger egg cleavage. This was observed both with centrosomes isolated from Drosophila syncytial embryos and nucleus-centrosome complexes from the Drosophila Kc23 cell line. We demonstrate that this inability could not be restored after pre-incubation of Drosophila centrosomes in the egg cytoplasm before injection. We conclude that the parthenogenetic activity of a centrosome is not directly linked to its capacity to nucleate microtubules from the egg tubulin, and that the evolutionary conserved nine-fold symmetrical structure of the centriole cannot be considered as sufficient for triggering procentriole assembly.

Morphological and molecular characterization of new Drosophila cell lines established from a strain permissive for gypsy transposition

The gypsy element of Drosophila melanogaster is the first retrovirus identified in invertebrates. Its transposition is controlled by a host gene called flamenco (flam): restrictive alleles of this gene maintain the retrovirus in a repressed state while permissive alleles allow high levels of transposition. To develop a cell system to study the gypsy element, we established four independent cell lines derived from the Drosophila strain SS, which contains a permissive allele of flamenco, and which is devoid of transposing copies of gypsy. The ultrastructural analysis of three SS cell lines revealed some remarkable characteristics, such as many nuclear virus-like particles, cytoplasmic dense particles, and massive cisternae filled with a fibrous material of unknown origin. Gypsy intragenomic distribution has been compared between the three cell lines and the original SS fly strain, and revealed in two of the cell lines an increase in copy number of a restriction fragment usually present in active gypsy elements. This multiplication seems to have occurred during the passage to the cell culture. Availability of SS cell lines should assist studies of gypsy transposition and infectivity and might be useful to produce high amounts of gypsy viral particles. These new lines already allowed us to show that the Envelope-like products of gypsy can be expressed as membrane proteins.

Structural alterations of the mitotic apparatus induced by the heat shock response in Drosophila cells

The general architecture of the mitotic apparatus was studied at the ultrastructural level in Drosophila cultured cells. Its two main characteristics are a very polarized spindle and a strong compartmentalization, ensured by large remnants of the nuclear envelope. Such compartmentalization has previously been reported for the rapid syncytial divisions of the early embryo; a similar finding in these cells with a long cycle strongly suggests that this organization constitutes a general mechanism for mitosis in Drosophila. We followed the modifications of these structures after a heat shock of 20, 50 or 120 min at 37 degrees C. Contrary to interphase cells, mitotic cells appear very sensitive to hyperthermia. This stress treatment induced a disruption of the mitotic spindle, a reappearance and an extension of the Golgi apparatus, an inactivation of microtubule nucleation and a disorganization of the centrosome. This organelle seems the first to be affected by the heat shock response. The centrosome is not only inactivated, but also is structurally affected. During the recovery phase after heat stress, the mitotic cells presented a remarkable ring-shaped accumulation of electron-dense material around the centrioles. We conclude that in Drosophila cells the mitotic phase, and more specifically the centrosome, are targets of the stress response.

Live analysis of free centrosomes in normal and aphidicolin-treated Drosophila embryos

In a number of embryonic systems, centrosomes that have lost their association with the nuclear envelope and spindle maintain their ability to duplicate and induce astral microtubules. To identify additional activities of free centrosomes, we monitored astral microtubule dynamics by injecting living syncytial Drosophila embryos with fluorescently labeled tubulin. Our recordings follow multiple rounds of free centrosome duplication and separation during the cortical division. The rate and distance of free sister centrosome separation corresponds well with the initial phase of associated centrosome separation. However, the later phase of separation observed for centrosomes associated with a spindle (anaphase B) does not occur. Free centrosome separation regularly occurs on a plane parallel to the plasma membrane. While previous work demonstrated that centrosomes influence cytoskeletal dynamics, this observation suggests that the cortical cytoskeleton regulates the orientation of centrosome separation. Although free centrosomes do not form spindles, they display relatively normal cell cycle-dependent modulations of their astral microtubules. In addition, free centrosome duplication, separation, and modulation of microtubule dynamics often occur in synchrony with neighboring associated centrosomes. These observations suggest that free centrosomes respond normally to local nuclear division signals. Disruption of the cortical nuclear divisions with aphidicolin supports this conclusion; large numbers of abnormal nuclei recede into the interior while their centrosomes remain on the cortex. Following individual free centrosomes through multiple focal planes for 45 min after the injection of aphidicolin reveals that they do not undergo normal modulation of their astral dynamics nor do they undergo multiple rounds of duplication and separation. We conclude that in the absence of normally dividing cortical nuclei many centrosome activities are disrupted and centrosome duplication is extensively delayed. This indicates the presence of a feedback mechanism that creates a dependency relationship between the cortical nuclear cycles and the centrosome cycles.

Polar organization of gamma-tubulin in acentriolar mitotic spindles of Drosophila melanogaster cells

The spindle pole localization of gamma-tubulin was compared in wild type and acentriolar cultured Drosophila cells using polyclonal antibodies specifically raised against the carboxy terminal amino acid sequence of Drosophila gamma-tubulin-1 (-KSEDSRSVTSAGS). During interphase, gamma-tubulin was present in the centrosome of wild type cells and accumulated around this organelle in a cell cycle dependent manner. In contrast, no such structure was observed in acentriolar cells. Wild type mitoses were homogeneously composed of biconical spindles, with two centrosome-associated gamma-tubulin spots at the poles. The mitotic apparatuses observed in the acentriolar cells were heterogeneous; multipolar mitoses, bipolar mitoses with a barrel-shaped spindle and bipolar mitoses with biconical spindles were observed. In acentriolar cells, gamma-tubulin accumulation at mitotic poles was dependent on spindle microtubule integrity. Most acentriolar spindles presented a dispersed gamma-tubulin labeling at the poles. Only well polarized and biconical acentriolar spindles showed a strong gamma-tubulin polar spot. Finally, acentriolar mitotic poles were not organized around true centrosomes. In contrast to wild type cells, in acentriolar cells the Bx63 centrosome-associated antigen was absent and the gamma-tubulin containing material dispersed readily following microtubule disassembly. These observations confirm that gamma-tubulin plays an essential role in the nucleation of microtubules even in the absence of mitotic polar organelles. In addition the data suggest that the mechanisms involved in the bipolarization of wild type and acentriolar mitoses are different, and that centrioles play a role in the spatial organization of the nucleating material containing gamma-tubulin.

Recruitment of antigenic gamma-tubulin during mitosis in animal cells: presence of gamma-tubulin in the mitotic spindle

It has been claimed repeatedly that gamma-tubulin is exclusively localized at the spindle poles in mitotic animal cells, where it plays a role in microtubule nucleation. In addition to this localization, we have observed a gamma-tubulin-specific staining of the mitotic spindle in several animal cells (human, kangaroo rat, mouse, Chinese hamster, Xenopus and Drosophila) using five polyclonal antibodies raised against unique gamma-tubulin sequences and four different fixation protocols. In HeLa and PtK2 cells, gamma-tubulin was detected in the mitotic spindle from late prometaphase to telophase. In contrast, in other cell types, it was detected in metaphase only. In all cases we failed to detect gamma-tubulin in the short aster microtubules at the spindle poles. Electron microscopic observation revealed that at least part of the gamma-tubulin localized on the surface of spindle microtubules with a preferential distribution along kinetochore microtubules. In HeLa cells, the amount of antigenic gamma-tubulin was fairly constant in the spindle poles during mitosis from prometaphase to telophase. In contrast, gamma-tubulin appeared in the mitotic spindles in prometaphase. The amount of gamma-tubulin decreased in telophase, where it relocalized in the interzone. In metaphase cells about 15–25% of the total fluorescence was localized at the spindle poles, while 75–85% of the fluorescence was distributed over the rest of the spindle. These results suggest that the localization and timing of gamma-tubulin during the cell cycle is highly regulated and that is physiological role could be more complex and diverse than initially assumed.

The effect of the heat shock response on ultrastructure of the centrosome of Drosophila cultured cells in interphase: possible relation with changes in the chemical state of calcium

Previous observations have shown that the heat shock response affects the centrosome function. We compared the ultrastructural organization of the centrosome in control (23 degrees C) and heat-shocked (37 degrees C, 50 min) interphase Drosophila cells to detect the nature of the lesions that could alter this organelle. The centrosome apparatus showed only minor modifications after the stress and the architecture of the centrioles appeared unaffected. The main difference concerned the organization of pericentriolar material which appeared more condensed and clotted. In extreme cases this material seemed to collapse on the centrioles. Recent reports proposed that Ca2+ concentrations could modify the distribution of pericentriolar material. In this study, we measured the changes in total and bound calcium in control or heat-shocked cell samples. The hyperthermia stress induced an increase of about 80% in global calcium. However, there was a decrease of about 50% in bound calcium. A heat shock stress seemed therefore to promote a change from the bound to the free state for a noticeable proportion of the element. As a preliminary hypothesis, these changes in the chemical state of calcium could be related to alterations in the pericentriolar material and thus with the functional inactivation of the centrosome. This view is also supported by calcium analysis on early Drosophila embryos. Contrary to cultured cells, Drosophila embryos did not present a stress inactivation of centrosomes. Equally, a heat shock did not disturb the bound calcium level in embryos.

Cyclin B is associated with centrosomes in Drosophila mitotic cells

We have studied by way of confocal laser scanning microscopy the subcellular localization of cyclin B in Drosophila-cultured cells and report here evidence that a part of the cyclin B cell pool is closely associated with the centrosome. This cyclin B centrosomal signal is strong in prophase and metaphase but disappears during anaphase. Moreover, the signal is absent in the acentriolar Drosophila cell line 1182-4. These results put forward additional arguments suggesting that the centrosome plays an important role in the control of the cell cycle.

The response of the centrosome to heat shock and related stresses in a Drosophila cell line

The centrosome of Drosophila melanogaster cells cultured in vitro has been followed by immunofluorescence techniques with the Bx63 antibody of Frasch and Saumweber. After a heat shock, the centrosome labelling becomes very small and finally disappears after 30 min. Other heat-shock protein (hsp) inducers such as ethanol, arsenite and ecdysterone lead to the same disappearance. Moreover, the functional ability of centrosomes to nucleate microtubule assembly is inhibited by these treatments, particularly by heat shock, ethanol and ecdysterone. Two other hsp inducers, cadmium chloride and hydrogen peroxide, do not affect the centrosome seriously. With the exception of cadmium, the rapidity and the intensity of hsp induction are in good agreement with the kinetics of alteration of the organelle. We propose that a close link exists between the heat-shock response and the centrosome and that the physiological induction of hsps could be reinterpreted in terms of cell division control.

Metallothionein genes in Drosophila melanogaster constitute a dual system

We have selected a metallothionein (MT) cDNA clone from a cadmium-resistant Drosophila melanogaster cell line. This clone includes an open reading frame coding for a 43-amino acid protein whose characteristics are a high cysteine content (12 cysteines, 28% of all residues) and a lack of aromatic amino acids. This protein differs markedly from the Drosophila MT (Mtn gene) previously reported [Lastowski-Perry, D., Otto, E. & Maroni, G. (1985) J. Biol. Chem. 260, 1527-1530). The MT system of Drosophila thus consists of at least two distantly related genes, in sharp contrast with vertebrate MT systems, in which the different members of MT gene families display high similarity. The gene corresponding to our MT cDNA (Mto) is inducible in Drosophila cell lines and in both larval and adult flies.

A centriole-free Drosophila cell line. A high voltage EM study

The problem of the absence of centrioles in cells of the 1182-4 line of Drosophila melanogaster has been reexamined with high voltage electron microscopy. A hypotonic treatment of the cells before fixation allowed a clear recognition of centrioles in 1 micron thick sections. Three different approaches were used to determine the presence of absence of centrioles in a Kc control cell line and in the 1182-4D cell line. 1) 1500 random 0.5 micron thick sections representing the equivalent of 60 whole cells of the 1182-4D line show no centrioles. In contrast, nearly all centrioles of the Kc cells were detected by this examination. 2) In a blind test 10 grids with either Kc or 1182-4D cells were correctly identified by the operator. In Kc cells, 4 to 6 diplosomes were observed by grid square on about 300 cell profiles, while no centrioles were seen in the sections of 1182-4D cells. 3) Complete serial sections 1 micron thick of whole 1182-4D cells were screened for presence or absence of centriole. No centriole was seen in any section. We conclude that these Drosophila 1182-4D cells, which have been maintained in culture for several years, are free of centrioles.

Metallothioneins and resistance to cadmium poisoning in Drosophila cells

Toxicity of cadmium on Drosophila cell lines has been studied. Maximal tolerance for cadmium chloride is 10 microM. Metallothioneins are induced in Drosophila cells following cadmium addition. A stable cadmium resistant cell line (Cd R200) has been selected starting from the haploid D clone. The Cd R200 cells are diploid and display metallothionein levels 22 times higher than cells of the original line fully induced with cadmium. The 200 microM CdCl2 tolerance upper limit in Cd R200 line is overcome if L-cysteine is supplemented to the medium. It is thus possible, in the presence of 5 mM L-cysteine, to select cells able to resist 800 microM CdCl2. These cells produce 4 times more metallothioneins than Cd R200 cells.

Evolution of karyotype in haploid cell lines of Drosophila melanogaster

Seven continuous cell lines have been established in vitro from lethal embryos produced by the female sterile mutant mh 1182 of Drosophila melanogaster. Six lines show haploid metaphases. Karyotype analysis revealed a high level of aneuploid cells with frequent chromosome fragments. In three lines, haploid cells were quickly overgrown by diploid cells. Two lines were more stable but the proportion of haploid cells decreased with time. One line was stable, showing 80-90% of haploid cells for over 1 000 cell generations. Stable haploid clones have been isolated from two lines. Crossing of mh 1182/mh 1182 females with males bearing a ring X chromosome shows that the haploid genome retained in the cells is of maternal origin and that the diploid cells derive from pre-existing haploid cells. The appearance of the diploid cells and the conditions of karyotypic stability are analysed.