Addressing preservation of elastic contrast in energy-filtered transmission electron microscopy

Energy-filtered transmission electron microscopy (EFTEM) images with resolutions of the order of an Ångström can be obtained using modern microscopes corrected for chromatic aberration. However, the delocalized nature of the transition potentials for atomic ionization often confounds direct interpretation of EFTEM images, leading to what is known as "preservation of elastic contrast". In this paper we demonstrate how more interpretable images might be obtained by scanning with a focused coherent probe and incoherently averaging the energy-filtered images over probe position. We dub this new imaging technique energy-filtered imaging scanning transmission electron microscopy (EFISTEM). We develop a theoretical framework for EFISTEM and show that it is in fact equivalent to precession EFTEM, where the plane wave illumination is precessed through a range of tilts spanning the same range of angles as the probe forming aperture in EFISTEM. It is demonstrated that EFISTEM delivers similar results to scanning transmission electron microscopy with an electron energy-loss spectrometer but has the advantage that it is immune to coherent aberrations and spatial incoherence of the probe and is also more resilient to scan distortions.

Surface determination through atomically resolved secondary-electron imaging

Unique determination of the atomic structure of technologically relevant surfaces is often limited by both a need for homogeneous crystals and ambiguity of registration between the surface and bulk. Atomically resolved secondary-electron imaging is extremely sensitive to this registration and is compatible with faceted nanomaterials, but has not been previously utilized for surface structure determination. Here we report a detailed experimental atomic-resolution secondary-electron microscopy analysis of the c(6 × 2) reconstruction on strontium titanate (001) coupled with careful simulation of secondary-electron images, density functional theory calculations and surface monolayer-sensitive aberration-corrected plan-view high-resolution transmission electron microscopy. Our work reveals several unexpected findings, including an amended registry of the surface on the bulk and strontium atoms with unusual seven-fold coordination within a typically high surface coverage of square pyramidal TiO5 units. Dielectric screening is found to play a critical role in attenuating secondary-electron generation processes from valence orbitals.

Direct observation of depth-dependent atomic displacements associated with dislocations in gallium nitride

We demonstrate that the aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscope has a sufficiently small depth of field to observe depth-dependent atomic displacements in a crystal. The depth-dependent displacements associated with the Eshelby twist of dislocations in GaN normal to the foil with a screw component of the Burgers vector are directly imaged. We show that these displacements are observed as a rotation of the lattice between images taken in a focal series. From the sense of the rotation, the sign of the screw component can be determined.

Nanohalos: a manifestation of electron channelling in gold nanoparticles

We discuss interesting haloing effects observed in experimental images of gold nanoparticles obtained using aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) employing the low-angle annular dark-field (LAADF) imaging mode. The LAADF images contained bright rings of intensity (halos) with a diameter equal to or smaller than the diameter of the nanoparticle, the diameter varying as a function of the defocus of the STEM probe. Numerical simulations reveal that the halos are only present if the nanoparticles are imaged down a zone axis. Since the halos were observed in nearly all experimental images, this suggests that the nanoparticles become oriented along crystal zone axes during imaging.

Contrast reversal in atomic-resolution chemical mapping

We report an unexpected result obtained using chemical mapping on the new, aberration corrected Nion UltraSTEM at Daresbury. Using different energy windows above the L2,3 edge in 011 silicon to map the position of the atomic columns we find a contrast reversal which produces an apparent and misleading translation of the silicon columns. Using simulations of the imaging process, we explain the intricate physical mechanisms leading to this effect.

Three-dimensional imaging in double aberration-corrected scanning confocal electron microscopy, part I: elastic scattering

A transmission electron microscope fitted with both pre-specimen and post-specimen spherical aberration correctors enables the possibility of aberration-corrected scanning confocal electron microscopy. Imaging modes available in this configuration can make use of either elastically or inelastically scattered electrons. In this paper we consider image contrast for elastically scattered electrons. It is shown that there is no linear phase contrast in the confocal condition, leading to very low contrast for a single atom. Multislice simulations of a thicker crystalline sample show that sample vertical location and thickness can be accurately determined. However, buried impurity layers do not give strong, nor readily interpretable contrast. The accompanying paper examines the detection of inelastically scattered electrons in the confocal geometry.

Depth sectioning in scanning transmission electron microscopy based on core-loss spectroscopy

Recent and ongoing improvements in aberration correction have opened up the possibility of depth sectioning samples using the scanning transmission electron microscope in a fashion similar to the confocal scanning optical microscope. We explore questions of principle relating to image interpretability in the depth sectioning of samples using electron energy loss spectroscopy. We show that provided electron microscope probes are sufficiently fine and detector collection semi-angles are sufficiently large we can expect to locate dopant atoms inside a crystal. Furthermore, unlike high angle annular dark field imaging, electron energy loss spectroscopy can resolve dopants of smaller atomic mass than the supporting crystalline matrix.

Two-dimensional mapping of chemical information at atomic resolution

The simultaneous measurement of structural and chemical information at the atomic scale provides fundamental insights into the connection between form and function in materials science and nanotechnology. We demonstrate structural and chemical mapping in Bi(0.5) Sr(0.5) MnO3 using an aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscope. Two-dimensional mapping is made possible by an adapted method for fast acquisition of electron energy-loss spectra. The experimental data are supported by simulations, which help to explain the less intuitive features.