Expanding bubbles in Orion A: [C II] observations of M42, M43, and NGC 1977

CONTEXT

The Orion Molecular Cloud is the nearest massive-star forming region. Massive stars have profound effects on their environment due to their strong radiation fields and stellar winds. Stellar feedback is one of the most crucial cosmological parameters that determine the properties and evolution of the interstellar medium in galaxies.

AIMS

We aim to understand the role that feedback by stellar winds and radiation play in the evolution of the interstellar medium. Velocity-resolved observations of the [C _II] 158μm fine-structure line allow us to study the kinematics of UV-illuminated gas. Here, we present a square-degree-sized map of [C _II] emission from the Orion Nebula complex at a spatial resolution of 16″ and high spectral resolution of 0.2kms^-1, covering the entire Orion Nebula (M42) plus M43 and the nebulae NGC 1973, 1975, and 1977 to the north. We compare the stellar characteristics of these three regions with the kinematics of the expanding bubbles surrounding them.

METHODS

We use [C ^II] 158μm line observations over an area of 1.2deg² in the Orion Nebula complex obtained by the upGREAT instrument onboard SOFIA.

RESULTS

The bubble blown by the O7V star θ ¹ Ori C in the Orion Nebula expands rapidly, at 13kms^-1. Simple analytical models reproduce the characteristics of the hot interior gas and the neutral shell of this wind-blown bubble and give us an estimate of the expansion time of 0.2 Myr. M43 with the B0.5V star NU Ori also exhibits an expanding bubble structure, with an expansion velocity of 6kms^-1. Comparison with analytical models for the pressure-driven expansion of H _II regions gives an age estimate of 0.02 Myr. The bubble surrounding NGC 1973, 1975, and 1977 with the central B1V star 42 Orionis expands at 1.5kms^-1, likely due to the over-pressurized ionized gas as in the case of M43. We derive an age of 0.4 Myr for this structure.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that the bubble of the Orion Nebula is driven by the mechanical energy input by the strong stellar wind from θ ¹ Ori C, while the bubbles associated with M43 and NGC 1977 are caused by the thermal expansion of the gas ionized by their central later-type massive stars.

Direct estimation of electron density in the Orion Bar PDR from mm-wave carbon recombination lines

CONTEXT

A significant fraction of the molecular gas in star-forming regions is irradiated by stellar UV photons. In these environments, the electron density (n e) plays a critical role in the gas dynamics, chemistry, and collisional excitation of certain molecules.

AIMS

We determine n e in the prototypical strongly irradiated photodissociation region (PDR), the Orion Bar, from the detection of new millimeter-wave carbon recombination lines (mmCRLs) and existing far-IR [13Cii] hyperfine line observations.

METHODS

We detect 12 mmCRLs (including α, β, and γ transitions) observed with the IRAM 30m telescope, at ~ 25″ angular resolution, toward the H/H2 dissociation front (DF) of the Bar. We also present a mmCRL emission cut across the PDR.

RESULTS

These lines trace the C+/C/CO gas transition layer. As the much lower frequency carbon radio recombination lines, mmCRLs arise from neutral PDR gas and not from ionized gas in the adjacent Hii region. This is readily seen from their narrow line profiles (Δv = 2.6 ± 0.4 km s-1) and line peak velocities (ν LSR = +10.7 ± 0.2 km s-1). Optically thin [13Cii] hyperfine lines and molecular lines - emitted close to the DF by trace species such as reactive ions CO+ and HOC+ - show the same line profiles. We use non-LTE excitation models of [13Cii] and mmCRLs and derive n e = 60 - 100 cm-3 and T e = 500 - 600 K toward the DF.

CONCLUSIONS

The inferred electron densities are high, up to an order of magnitude higher than previously thought. They provide a lower limit to the gas thermal pressure at the PDR edge without using molecular tracers. We obtain P th ≥ (2 - 4)·108 cm-3 K assuming that the electron abundance is equal to or lower than the gas-phase elemental abundance of carbon. Such elevated thermal pressures leave little room for magnetic pressure support and agree with a scenario in which the PDR photoevaporates.

Disruption of the Orion molecular core 1 by wind from the massive star θ1 Orionis C

Massive stars inject mechanical and radiative energy into the surrounding environment, which stirs it up, heats the gas, produces cloud and intercloud phases in the interstellar medium, and disrupts molecular clouds (the birth sites of new stars^1,2). Stellar winds, supernova explosions and ionization by ultraviolet photons control the lifetimes of molecular clouds^3-7. Theoretical studies predict that momentum injection by radiation should dominate that by stellar winds⁸, but this has been difficult to assess observationally. Velocity-resolved large-scale images in the fine-structure line of ionized carbon ([C II]) provide an observational diagnostic for the radiative energy input and the dynamics of the interstellar medium around massive stars. Here we report observations of a one-square-degree region (about 7 parsecs in diameter) of Orion molecular core 1-the region nearest to Earth that exhibits massive-star formation-at a resolution of 16 arcseconds (0.03 parsecs) in the [C II] line at 1.9 terahertz (158 micrometres). The results reveal that the stellar wind originating from the massive star θ¹ Orionis C has swept up the surrounding material to create a 'bubble' roughly four parsecs in diameter with a 2,600-solar-mass shell, which is expanding at 13 kilometres per second. This finding demonstrates that the mechanical energy from the stellar wind is converted very efficiently into kinetic energy of the shell and causes more disruption of the Orion molecular core 1 than do photo-ionization and evaporation or future supernova explosions.

PAH under XUV excitation: an ultrafast XUV-photochemistry experiment for astrophysics

Understanding processes induced by XUV excitation of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) is at the heart of molecular astrophysics, which aims at understanding molecular evolution in interstellar media. We used ultrashort XUV pulses to produce highly excited PAHs cations. The photo-induced dynamics is probed using a pump-probe XUV-IR spectroscopy. By studying PAH from small (naphthalene) to large (hexabenzocoronene) PAHs, we show that the dynamic is governed by the large density of states, in which many-body quantum effects are dominant.

[Cii] emission from L1630 in the Orion B molecular cloud

CONTEXT

L1630 in the Orion B molecular cloud, which includes the iconic Horsehead Nebula, illuminated by the star system σ Ori, is an example of a photodissociation region (PDR). In PDRs, stellar radiation impinges on the surface of dense material, often a molecular cloud, thereby inducing a complex network of chemical reactions and physical processes.

AIMS

Observations toward L1630 allow us to study the interplay between stellar radiation and a molecular cloud under relatively benign conditions, that is, intermediate densities and an intermediate UV radiation field. Contrary to the well-studied Orion Molecular Cloud 1 (OMC1), which hosts much harsher conditions, L1630 has little star formation. Our goal is to relate the [Cii] fine-structure line emission to the physical conditions predominant in L1630 and compare it to studies of OMC1.

METHODS

The [Cii] 158 μm line emission of L1630 around the Horsehead Nebula, an area of 12' × 17', was observed using the upgraded German Receiver for Astronomy at Terahertz Frequencies (upGREAT) onboard the Stratospheric Observatory for Infrared Astronomy (SOFIA).

RESULTS

Of the [Cii] emission from the mapped area 95%, 13 L⊙, originates from the molecular cloud; the adjacent Hii region contributes only 5%, that is, 1 L⊙. From comparison with other data (CO(1-0)-line emission, far-infrared (FIR) continuum studies, emission from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs)), we infer a gas density of the molecular cloud of nH ∼ 3 · 103 cm-3, with surface layers, including the Horsehead Nebula, having a density of up to nH ∼ 4 · 104 cm-3. The temperature of the surface gas is T ∼ 100 K. The average [Cii] cooling efficiency within the molecular cloud is 1.3 · 10-2. The fraction of the mass of the molecular cloud within the studied area that is traced by [Cii] is only 8%. Our PDR models are able to reproduce the FIR-[Cii] correlations and also the CO(1-0)-[Cii] correlations. Finally, we compare our results on the heating efficiency of the gas with theoretical studies of photoelectric heating by PAHs, clusters of PAHs, and very small grains, and find the heating efficiency to be lower than theoretically predicted, a continuation of the trend set by other observations.

CONCLUSIONS

In L1630 only a small fraction of the gas mass is traced by [Cii]. Most of the [Cii] emission in the mapped area stems from PDR surfaces. The layered edge-on structure of the molecular cloud and limitations in spatial resolution put constraints on our ability to relate different tracers to each other and to the physical conditions. From our study, we conclude that the relation between [Cii] emission and physical conditions is likely to be more complicated than often assumed. The theoretical heating efficiency is higher than the one we calculate from the observed [Cii] emission in the L1630 molecular cloud.

Diamond-like-carbon nanoparticle production and agglomeration following UV multi-photon excitation of static naphthalene/helium gas mixtures

We report the formation of nanoparticles with significant diamond character after UV multi-photon laser excitation of gaseous naphthalene, buffered in static helium gas, at room temperature. The nanoparticles are identified in situ by their absorption and scattering spectra between 400 and 850 nm, which are modeled using Mie theory. Comparisons of the particles' spectroscopic and optical properties with those of carbonaceous materials indicate a sp(3)/sp(2) hybridization ratio of 8:1 of the particles formed. The particle extinction in the closed static (unstirred) gas-phase system exhibits a complex and quasi-oscillatory time dependence for the duration of up to several hours with periods ranging from seconds to many minutes. The extinction dynamics of the system is based on a combination of transport features and particle interaction, predominantly agglomeration. The relatively long period of agglomeration allows for a unique analysis of the agglomeration process of diamond-like carbon nanoparticles in situ.

Formation of H2 from internally heated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: excitation energy dependence

We have investigated the effectiveness of molecular hydrogen (H2) formation from Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) which are internally heated by collisions with keV ions. The present and earlier experimental results are analyzed in view of molecular structure calculations and a simple collision model. We estimate that H2 formation becomes important for internal PAH temperatures exceeding about 2200 K, regardless of the PAH size and the excitation agent. This suggests that keV ions may effectively induce such reactions, while they are unlikely due to, e.g., absorption of single photons with energies below the Lyman limit. The present analysis also suggests that H2 emission is correlated with multi-fragmentation processes, which means that the [PAH-2H](+) peak intensities in the mass spectra may not be used for estimating H2-formation rates.

Formations of dumbbell C118 and C119 inside clusters of C60 molecules by collision with α particles

We report highly selective covalent bond modifications in collisions between keV alpha particles and van der Waals clusters of C(60) fullerenes. Surprisingly, C(119)(+) and C(118)(+) are the dominant molecular fusion products. We use molecular dynamics simulations to show that C(59)(+) and C(58)(+) ions--effectively produced in prompt knockout processes with He(2+)--react rapidly with C(60) to form dumbbell C(119)(+) and C(118)(+). Ion impact on molecular clusters in general is expected to lead to efficient secondary reactions of interest for astrophysics. These reactions are different from those induced by photons.

Massive-Star Supernovae as Major Dust Factories

We present late-time optical and mid-infrared observations of the Type II supernova 2003gd in the galaxy NGC 628. Mid-infrared excesses consistent with cooling dust in the ejecta are observed 499 to 678 days after outburst and are accompanied by increasing optical extinction and growing asymmetries in the emission-line profiles. Radiative-transfer models show that up to 0.02 solar masses of dust has formed within the ejecta, beginning as early as 250 days after outburst. These observations show that dust formation in supernova ejecta can be efficient and that massive-star supernovae could have been major dust producers throughout the history of the universe.