Comparison of human adult and fetal expression and identification of 535 housekeeping/maintenance genes

Gene expression levels of about 7,000 genes were measured in 11 different human adult and fetal tissues using high-density oligonucleotide arrays to identify genes involved in cellular maintenance. The tissues share a set of 535 transcripts that are turned on early in fetal development and stay on throughout adulthood. Because our goal was to identify genes that are involved in maintaining cellular function in normal individuals, we minimized the effect of individual variation by screening mRNA pooled from many individuals. This information is useful for establishing average expression levels in normal individuals. Additionally, we identified transcripts uniquely expressed in each of the 11 tissues.

Impaired thalamocortical connectivity in autism spectrum disorder: a study of functional and anatomical connectivity

The thalamus plays crucial roles in the development and mature functioning of numerous sensorimotor, cognitive and attentional circuits. Currently limited evidence suggests that autism spectrum disorder may be associated with thalamic abnormalities, potentially related to sociocommunicative and other impairments in this disorder. We used functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging and diffusion tensor imaging probabilistic tractography to study the functional and anatomical integrity of thalamo-cortical connectivity in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder and matched typically developing children. For connectivity with five cortical seeds (prefontal, parieto-occipital, motor, somatosensory and temporal), we found evidence of both anatomical and functional underconnectivity. The only exception was functional connectivity with the temporal lobe, which was increased in the autism spectrum disorders group, especially in the right hemisphere. However, this effect was robust only in partial correlation analyses (partialling out time series from other cortical seeds), whereas findings from total correlation analyses suggest that temporo-thalamic overconnectivity in the autism group was only relative to the underconnectivity found for other cortical seeds. We also found evidence of microstructural compromise within the thalamic motor parcel, associated with compromise in tracts between thalamus and motor cortex, suggesting that the thalamus may play a role in motor abnormalities reported in previous autism studies. More generally, a number of correlations of diffusion tensor imaging and functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging measures with diagnostic and neuropsychological scores indicate involvement of abnormal thalamocortical connectivity in sociocommunicative and cognitive impairments in autism spectrum disorder.

UK Lung Cancer RCT Pilot Screening Trial: baseline findings from the screening arm provide evidence for the potential implementation of lung cancer screening

Background

Lung cancer screening using low-dose CT (LDCT) was shown to reduce lung cancer mortality by 20% in the National Lung Screening Trial.

Methods

The pilot UK Lung Cancer Screening (UKLS) is a randomised controlled trial of LDCT screening for lung cancer versus usual care. A population-based questionnaire was used to identify high-risk individuals. CT screen-detected nodules were managed by a pre-specified protocol. Cost effectiveness was modelled with reference to the National Lung Cancer Screening Trial mortality reduction.

Results

247 354 individuals aged 50–75 years were approached; 30.7% expressed an interest, 8729 (11.5%) were eligible and 4055 were randomised, 2028 into the CT arm (1994 underwent a CT). Forty-two participants (2.1%) had confirmed lung cancer, 34 (1.7%) at baseline and 8 (0.4%) at the 12-month scan. 28/42 (66.7%) had stage I disease, 36/42 (85.7%) had stage I or II disease. 35/42 (83.3%) had surgical resection. 536 subjects had nodules greater than 50 mm³ or 5 mm diameter and 41/536 were found to have lung cancer. One further cancer was detected by follow-up of nodules between 15 and 50 mm³ at 12 months. The baseline estimate for the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of once-only CT screening, under the UKLS protocol, was £8466 per quality adjusted life year gained (CI £5542 to £12 569).

Conclusions

The UKLS pilot trial demonstrated that it is possible to detect lung cancer at an early stage and deliver potentially curative treatment in over 80% of cases. Health economic analysis suggests that the intervention would be cost effective—this needs to be confirmed using data on observed lung cancer mortality reduction.

Trial registration

ISRCTN 78513845.

Astrocytes in multiple sclerosis: a product of their environment

It has long been thought that astrocytes, like other glial cells, simply provide a support mechanism for neuronal function in the healthy and inflamed central nervous system (CNS). However, recent evidence suggests that astrocytes play an active and dual role in CNS inflammatory diseases such as multiple sclerosis (MS). Astrocytes not only have the ability to enhance immune responses and inhibit myelin repair, but they can also be protective and limit CNS inflammation while supporting oligodendrocyte and axonal regeneration. The particular impact of these cells on the pathogenesis and repair of an inflammatory demyelinating process is dependent upon a number of factors, including the stage of the disease, the type and microenvironment of the lesion, and the interactions with other cell types and factors that influence their activation. In this review, we summarize recent data supporting the idea that astrocytes play a complex role in the regulation of CNS autoimmunity.

Local functional overconnectivity in posterior brain regions is associated with symptom severity in autism spectrum disorders

Although growing evidence indicates atypical long-distance connectivity in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), much less is known about local connectivity, despite conjectures that local overconnectivity may be causally involved in the disorder. Using functional connectivity MRI and graph theory, we found that local functional connectivity was atypically increased in adolescents with ASD in temporo-occipital regions bilaterally. Posterior overconnectivity was found to be associated with higher ASD symptom severity, whereas an ASD subsample with low severity showed frontal underconnectivity. The findings suggest links between symptomatology and local connectivity, which vary within the autism spectrum.

Cerebro-cerebellar Resting-State Functional Connectivity in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder

BACKGROUND

The cerebellum plays important roles in sensori-motor and supramodal cognitive functions. Cellular, volumetric, and functional abnormalities of the cerebellum have been found in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), but no comprehensive investigation of cerebro-cerebellar connectivity in ASD is available.

METHODS

We used resting-state functional connectivity magnetic resonance imaging in 56 children and adolescents (28 subjects with ASD, 28 typically developing subjects) 8-17 years old. Partial and total correlation analyses were performed for unilateral regions of interest (ROIs), distinguished in two broad domains as sensori-motor (premotor/primary motor, somatosensory, superior temporal, and occipital) and supramodal (prefrontal, posterior parietal, and inferior and middle temporal).

RESULTS

There were three main findings: 1) Total correlation analyses showed predominant cerebro-cerebellar functional overconnectivity in the ASD group; 2) partial correlation analyses that emphasized domain specificity (sensori-motor vs. supramodal) indicated a pattern of robustly increased connectivity in the ASD group (compared with the typically developing group) for sensori-motor ROIs but predominantly reduced connectivity for supramodal ROIs; and 3) this atypical pattern of connectivity was supported by significantly increased noncanonical connections (between sensori-motor cerebral and supramodal cerebellar ROIs and vice versa) in the ASD group.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings indicate that sensori-motor intrinsic functional connectivity is atypically increased in ASD, at the expense of connectivity supporting cerebellar participation in supramodal cognition.

High resolution protein localization using soft X-ray microscopy

Soft X-ray microscopes can be used to examine whole, hydrated cells up to 10 microm thick and produce images approaching 30 nm resolution. Since cells are imaged in the X-ray transmissive "water window", where organic material absorbs approximately an order of magnitude more strongly than water, chemical contrast enhancement agents are not required to view the distribution of cellular structures. Although living specimens cannot be examined, cells can be rapidly frozen at a precise moment in time and examined in a cryostage, revealing information that most closely approximates that in live cells. In this study, we used a transmission X-ray microscope at photon energies just below the oxygen edge (lambda = 2.4 nm) to examine rapidly frozen mouse 3T3 cells and obtained excellent cellular morphology at better than 50 nm lateral resolution. These specimens are extremely stable, enabling multiple exposures with virtually no detectable damage to cell structures. We also show that silver-enhanced, immunogold labelling can be used to localize both cytoplasmic and nuclear proteins in whole, hydrated mammary epithelial cells at better than 50 nm resolution. The future use of X-ray tomography, along with improved zone plate lenses, will enable collection of better resolution (approaching 30 nm), three-dimensional information on the distribution of proteins in cells.

Patterns of Atypical Functional Connectivity and Behavioral Links in Autism Differ Between Default, Salience, and Executive Networks

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by atypical brain network organization, but findings have been inconsistent. While methodological and maturational factors have been considered, the network specificity of connectivity abnormalities remains incompletely understood. We investigated intrinsic functional connectivity (iFC) for four "core" functional networks-default-mode (DMN), salience (SN), and left (lECN) and right executive control (rECN). Resting-state functional MRI data from 75 children and adolescents (37 ASD, 38 typically developing [TD]) were included. Functional connectivity within and between networks was analyzed for regions of interest (ROIs) and whole brain, compared between groups, and correlated with behavioral scores. ROI analyses showed overconnectivity (ASD > TD), especially between DMN and ECN. Whole-brain results were mixed. While predominant overconnectivity was found for DMN (posterior cingulate seed) and rECN (right inferior parietal seed), predominant underconnectivity was found for SN (right anterior insula seed) and lECN (left inferior parietal seed). In the ASD group, reduced SN integrity was associated with sensory and sociocommunicative symptoms. In conclusion, atypical connectivity in ASD is network-specific, ranging from extensive overconnectivity (DMN, rECN) to extensive underconnectivity (SN, lECN). Links between iFC and behavior differed between groups. Core symptomatology in the ASD group was predominantly related to connectivity within the salience network.

Assessing spectral algorithms to predict atherosclerotic plaque composition with normalized and raw intravascular ultrasound data

Spectral analysis of backscattered intravascular ultrasound (IVUS) data has demonstrated the ability to characterize plaque. We compared the ability of spectral parameters (e.g., slope, midband fit and y-intercept), computed via classic Fourier transform (CPSD), Welch power spectrum (WPSD) and autoregressive (MPSD) models, to classify plaque composition. Data were collected ex vivo from 32 human left anterior descending coronary arteries. Regions-of-interest (ROIs), selected from histology, comprised 64 collagen-rich, 24 fibrolipidic, 23 calcified and 37 calcified-necrotic regions. A novel quantitative method was used to correlate IVUS data with corresponding histologic sections. Periodograms of IVUS samples, identified for each ROI, were used to calculate spectral parameters. Statistical classification trees (CT) were computed with 75% of the data for plaque characterization. The remaining data were used to assess the accuracy of the CTs. The overall accuracies for normalized spectra with CPSD, WPSD and MPSD were, respectively, 84.7%, 85.6% and 81.1% (training data) and 54.1%, 64.9% and 37.8% (test data). These numbers were improved to 89.2%, 91.9% and 89.2% (training) and 62.2%, 73% and 59.5% (test) when the calcified and calcified-necrotic regions were combined for analysis. Most CTs misclassified a few fibrolipidic regions as collagen, which is histologically acceptable, and the unnormalized and normalized spectra results were similar.

Cyclic AMP response element binding protein and brain-derived neurotrophic factor: molecules that modulate our mood?

Depression is the major psychiatric ailment of our times, afflicting approximately 20% of the population. Despite its prevalence, the pathophysiology of this complex disorder is not well understood. In addition, although antidepressants have been in existence for the past several decades, the mechanisms that underlie their therapeutic effects remain elusive. Building evidence implicates a role for the plasticity of specific neuro-circuitry in both the pathophysiology and treatment of depression. Damage to limbic regions is thought to contribute to the etiology of depression and antidepressants have been reported to reverse such damage and promote adaptive plasticity. The molecular pathways that contribute to the damage associated with depression and antidepressant-mediated plasticity are a major focus of scientific enquiry. The transcription factor cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) and the neurotrophin brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) are targets of diverse classes of antidepressants and are known to be regulated in animal models and in patients suffering from depression. Given their role in neuronal plasticity, CREB and BDNF have emerged as molecules that may play an important role in modulating mood. The purpose of this review is to discuss the role of CREB and BDNF in depression and as targets/mediators of antidepressant action.

Multi-disciplinary rehabilitation for acquired brain injury in adults of working age

BACKGROUND

Evidence from systematic reviews demonstrates that multi-disciplinary rehabilitation is effective in the stroke population, where older adults predominate. However, the evidence base for the effectiveness of rehabilitation following acquired brain injury (ABI) in younger adults is not yet established, perhaps because there are different methodological challenges.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the effects of multi-disciplinary rehabilitation following ABI in adults, 16 to 65 years. To explore approaches that are effective in different settings and the outcomes that are affected.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We used a wide range of sources including: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE (1966-2004), EMBASE (1988-2004), CINAHL (1983-2004), PsycLIT (1967-2004), AMED, the National Research Register 2004 and ISI Science Citation Index (1981-2004).

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) comparing multi-disciplinary rehabilitation with either routinely available local services or lower levels of intervention; or trials comparing intervention in different settings or at different levels of intensity. Quasi-randomised and quasi-experimental designs were also included, providing they met pre-defined methodological criteria.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Trials were selected by two authors independently, and their methodological quality rated, again by two independent authors. A third reviewer arbitrated when disagreements could not be resolved by discussion. A 'best evidence' synthesis was performed by attributing levels of evidence, based on methodological quality. Trials were sub-divided in terms of severity of ABI and the setting and type of rehabilitation offered.

MAIN RESULTS

Ten trials were identified of good methodological quality and four of lower quality. Within the subgroup of predominantly mild brain injury, 'strong evidence' suggested that most patients make a good recovery with provision of appropriate information, without additional specific intervention. For moderate to severe injury, there is 'strong evidence' of benefit from formal intervention. For patients with moderate to severe ABI already in rehabilitation, there is strong evidence that more intensive programmes are associated with earlier functional gains, and 'moderate evidence' that continued outpatient therapy can help to sustain gains made in early post-acute rehabilitation. There is 'limited evidence' that specialist in-patient rehabilitation and specialist multi-disciplinary community rehabilitation may provide additional functional gains, but the studies serve to highlight the particular practical and ethical restraints on randomisation of severely affected individuals for whom there are no realistic alternatives to specialist intervention.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Problems following ABI vary; different services are required to suit the needs of patients with different problems. Patients presenting acutely to hospital with moderate to severe brain injury should be routinely followed up to assess their need for rehabilitation. Intensive intervention appears to lead to earlier gains. The balance between intensity and cost-effectiveness has yet to be determined. Patients discharged from in-patient rehabilitation should have access to out-patient or community-based services appropriate to their needs. Those with milder brain injury benefit from follow-up, and appropriate information and advice. Not all questions in rehabilitation can be addressed by traditional research methodologies. There are important questions still to be answered and future research should employ the most appropriate methodology.

Approaches to local connectivity in autism using resting state functional connectivity MRI

While the literature on aberrant long-distance connectivity in autism spectrum disorder (ASD) has grown fast over the past decade, little is known about local connectivity. We used regional homogeneity and local density approaches at different spatial scales to examine local connectivity in 29 children and adolescents with ASD and 29 matched typically developing participants, using resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging data. Across a total of 12 analysis pipelines, the gross pattern of between-group findings was overall stable, with local overconnectivity in the ASD group in occipital and posterior temporal regions and underconnectivity in middle/posterior cingulate, and medial prefrontal regions. This general pattern was confirmed in secondary analyses for low-motion subsamples (n = 20 per group), in which time series segments with >0.25 mm head motion were censored, as well as in an analysis including global signal regression. Local overconnectivity in visual regions appears consistent with preference for local over global visual processing previously reported in ASD, whereas cingulate and medial frontal underconnectivity may relate to aberrant function within the default mode network.

Organochlorine and organophosphorus pesticide residues in breast milk from Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India

HCH isomers, endosulfan, malathion, chlorpyrifos, and methyl-parathion were monitored in human milk samples from Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. The endosulfan concentrations were highest and exceeded the sigma-HCH, chlorpyrifos, and malathion concentrations by 3.5-, 1.5-, and 8.4-fold, respectively. Through breast milk, infants consumed 8.6 times more endosulfan and 4.1 times more malathion than the average daily intake levels recommended by the World Health Organization. A correlation analysis (r values) between mothers' age and the content of the chemicals accumulated in breast milk indicated a substantial degree of correlation for malathion (r = 0.5). The other chemicals showed low to negligible correlation with donor age.

Repetitive behaviors in autism are linked to imbalance of corticostriatal connectivity: a functional connectivity MRI study

The neural underpinnings of repetitive behaviors (RBs) in autism spectrum disorders (ASDs), ranging from cognitive to motor characteristics, remain unknown. We assessed RB symptomatology in 50 ASD and 52 typically developing (TD) children and adolescents (ages 8-17 years), examining intrinsic functional connectivity (iFC) of corticostriatal circuitry, which is important for reward-based learning and integration of emotional, cognitive and motor processing, and considered impaired in ASDs. Connectivity analyses were performed for three functionally distinct striatal seeds (limbic, frontoparietal and motor). Functional connectivity with cortical regions of interest was assessed for corticostriatal circuit connectivity indices and ratios, testing the balance of connectivity between circuits. Results showed corticostriatal overconnectivity of limbic and frontoparietal seeds, but underconnectivity of motor seeds. Correlations with RBs were found for connectivity between the striatal motor seeds and cortical motor clusters from the whole-brain analysis, and for frontoparietal/limbic and motor/limbic connectivity ratios. Division of ASD participants into high (n = 17) and low RB subgroups (n = 19) showed reduced frontoparietal/limbic and motor/limbic circuit ratios for high RB compared to low RB and TD groups in the right hemisphere. Results suggest an association between RBs and an imbalance of corticostriatal iFC in ASD, being increased for limbic, but reduced for frontoparietal and motor circuits.

Impact of methodological variables on functional connectivity findings in autism spectrum disorders

Growing evidence suggests that Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) involves abnormalities of multiple functional networks. Neuroimaging studies of ASD have therefore increasingly focused on connectivity. Many functional connectivity (fcMRI) studies have reported network underconnectivity in children and adults with ASD. However, there are notable inconsistencies, with some studies reporting overconnectivity. A previous literature survey suggested that a few methodological factors play a crucial role in differential fcMRI outcomes. Using three ASD data sets (two task-related, one resting state) from 54 ASD and 51 typically developing (TD) participants (ages 9-18 years), we examined the impact of four methodological factors: type of pipeline (co-activation vs. intrinsic analysis, related to temporal filtering and removal of task-related effects), seed selection, field of view (whole brain vs. limited ROIs), and dataset. Significant effects were found for type of pipeline, field of view, and dataset. Notably, for each dataset results ranging from robust underconnectivity to robust overconnectivity were detected, depending on the type of pipeline, with intrinsic fcMRI analyses (low bandpass filter and task regressor) predominantly yielding overconnectivity in ASD, but co-activation analyses (no low bandpass filter or task removal) mostly generating underconnectivity findings. These results suggest that methodological variables have dramatic impact on group differences reported in fcMRI studies. Improved awareness of their implications appears indispensible in fcMRI studies when inferences about "underconnectivity" or "overconnectivity" in ASD are made. In the absence of a gold standard for functional connectivity, the combination of different methodological approaches promises a more comprehensive understanding of connectivity in ASD.

Selective activation of angiotensin AT2 receptors attenuates progression of pulmonary hypertension and inhibits cardiopulmonary fibrosis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Pulmonary hypertension (PH) is a devastating disease characterized by increased pulmonary arterial pressure, which progressively leads to right-heart failure and death. A dys-regulated renin angiotensin system (RAS) has been implicated in the development and progression of PH. However, the role of the angiotensin AT2 receptor in PH has not been fully elucidated. We have taken advantage of a recently identified non-peptide AT2 receptor agonist, Compound 21 (C21), to investigate its effects on the well-established monocrotaline (MCT) rat model of PH.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

A single s.c. injection of MCT (50 mg·kg(-1) ) was used to induce PH in 8-week-old male Sprague Dawley rats. After 2 weeks of MCT administration, a subset of animals began receiving either 0.03 mg·kg(-1) C21, 3 mg·kg(-1) PD-123319 or 0.5 mg·kg(-1) A779 for an additional 2 weeks, after which right ventricular haemodynamic parameters were measured and tissues were collected for gene expression and histological analyses.

KEY RESULTS

Initiation of C21 treatment significantly attenuated much of the pathophysiology associated with MCT-induced PH. Most notably, C21 reversed pulmonary fibrosis and prevented right ventricular fibrosis. These beneficial effects were associated with improvement in right heart function, decreased pulmonary vessel wall thickness, reduced pro-inflammatory cytokines and favourable modulation of the lung RAS. Conversely, co-administration of the AT2 receptor antagonist, PD-123319, or the Mas antagonist, A779, abolished the protective actions of C21.

CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS

Taken together, our results suggest that the AT2 receptor agonist, C21, may hold promise for patients with PH.

Regional specificity of aberrant thalamocortical connectivity in autism

Preliminary evidence suggests aberrant (mostly reduced) thalamocortical (TC) connectivity in autism spectrum disorder (ASD), but despite the crucial role of thalamus in sensorimotor functions and its extensive connectivity with cerebral cortex, relevant evidence remains limited. We performed a comprehensive investigation of region-specific TC connectivity in ASD. Resting-state functional MRI and diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data were acquired for 60 children and adolescents with ASD (ages 7-17 years) and 45 age, sex, and IQ-matched typically developing (TD) participants. We examined intrinsic functional connectivity (iFC) and anatomical connectivity (probabilistic tractography) with thalamus, using 68 unilateral cerebral cortical regions of interest (ROIs). For frontal and parietal lobes, iFC was atypically reduced in the ASD group for supramodal association cortices, but was increased for cingulate gyri and motor cortex. Temporal iFC was characterized by overconnectivity for auditory cortices, but underconnectivity for amygdalae. Occipital iFC was broadly reduced in the ASD group. DTI indices (such as increased radial diffusion) for regions with group differences in iFC further indicated compromised anatomical connectivity, especially for frontal ROIs, in the ASD group. Our findings highlight the regional specificity of aberrant TC connectivity in ASD. Their overall pattern can be largely accounted for by functional overconnectivity with limbic and sensorimotor regions, but underconnectivity with supramodal association cortices. This could be related to comparatively early maturation of limbic and sensorimotor regions in the context of early overgrowth in ASD, at the expense of TC connectivity with later maturing cortical regions.

Identification of candidate genes for prostate cancer-risk SNPs utilizing a normal prostate tissue eQTL data set

Multiple studies have identified loci associated with the risk of developing prostate cancer but the associated genes are not well studied. Here we create a normal prostate tissue-specific eQTL data set and apply this data set to previously identified prostate cancer (PrCa)-risk SNPs in an effort to identify candidate target genes. The eQTL data set is constructed by the genotyping and RNA sequencing of 471 samples. We focus on 146 PrCa-risk SNPs, including all SNPs in linkage disequilibrium with each risk SNP, resulting in 100 unique risk intervals. We analyse cis-acting associations where the transcript is located within 2 Mb (±1 Mb) of the risk SNP interval. Of all SNP–gene combinations tested, 41.7% of SNPs demonstrate a significant eQTL signal after adjustment for sample histology and 14 expression principal component covariates. Of the 100 PrCa-risk intervals, 51 have a significant eQTL signal and these are associated with 88 genes. This study provides a rich resource to study biological mechanisms underlying genetic risk to PrCa.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms—SNPs—have been identified for prostate cancer but whether these SNPs alter the expression of genes is largely unknown. In this study, the authors search for genes located within 2 Mb of the SNPs and identify SNPs that influence gene expression, so called expression quantitative trait loci.

Novel ABA- and dehydration-inducible aldehyde dehydrogenase genes isolated from the resurrection plant Craterostigma plantagineum and Arabidopsis thaliana

In order to identify genes that are critical for the ABA-dependent stress response in the resurrection plant Craterostigma plantagineum, a gene was isolated with homology to class 3 variable substrate aldehyde dehydrogenases (ALDH). The C. plantagineum gene Cp-ALDH constitutes a novel class of plant ALDHs. In a search for corresponding genes from Arabidopsis thaliana, Ath-ALDH3 and Ath-ALDH4 were isolated, showing 70% and 80% similarity to Cp-ALDH. Phylogenetically, the Cp- and Ath-ALDH3 and -ALDH4 proteins are closely related to aldehyde dehydrogenases from bacteria and mammalian species and are separated from known plant ALDHs and betaine-aldehyde dehydrogenases (BADH). Cp-ALDH transcript and polypeptide are up-regulated in vegetative tissues and callus in response to dehydration or ABA-treatment. Ath-ALDH3 expression was induced in response to dehydration and ABA treatment, while Ath-ALDH4 is constitutively expressed at a low level. Recombinant Cp-ALDH protein oxidizes nonanal, propionaldehyde and acetaldehyde, with Km values of 2.2 microm, 0.27 mm and 3.23 mm, respectively, in an NAD-dependent manner. Immunogold electron microscopy shows that Cp-ALDH is localized in plastids.

A Review of Default Mode Network Connectivity and Its Association With Social Cognition in Adolescents With Autism Spectrum Disorder and Early-Onset Psychosis

Recent studies have demonstrated substantial phenotypic overlap, notably social impairment, between autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and schizophrenia. However, the neural mechanisms underlying the pathogenesis of social impairments across these distinct neuropsychiatric disorders has not yet been fully examined. Most neuroimaging studies to date have focused on adults with these disorders, with little known about the neural underpinnings of social impairments in younger populations. Here, we present a narrative review of the literature available through April 2020 on imaging studies of adolescents with either ASD or early-onset psychosis (EOP), to better understand the shared and unique neural mechanisms of social difficulties across diagnosis from a developmental framework. We specifically focus on functional connectivity studies of the default mode network (DMN), as the most extensively studied brain network relevant to social cognition across both groups. Our review included 29 studies of DMN connectivity in adolescents with ASD (Mean age range = 11.2-21.6 years), and 14 studies in adolescents with EOP (Mean age range = 14.2-24.3 years). Of these, 15 of 29 studies in ASD adolescents found predominant underconnectivity when examining DMN connectivity. In contrast, findings were mixed in adolescents with EOP, with five of 14 studies reporting DMN underconnectivity, and an additional six of 14 studies reporting both under- and over-connectivity of the DMN. Specifically, intra-DMN networks were more frequently underconnected in ASD, but overconnected in EOP. On the other hand, inter-DMN connectivity patterns were mixed (both under- and over-connected) for each group, especially DMN connectivity with frontal, sensorimotor, and temporoparietal regions in ASD, and with frontal, temporal, subcortical, and cerebellar regions in EOP. Finally, disrupted DMN connectivity appeared to be associated with social impairments in both groups, less so with other features distinct to each condition, such as repetitive behaviors/restricted interests in ASD and hallucinations/delusions in EOP. Further studies on demographically well-matched groups of adolescents with each of these conditions are needed to systematically explore additional contributing factors in DMN connectivity patterns such as clinical heterogeneity, pubertal development, and medication effects that would better inform treatment targets and facilitate prediction of outcomes in the context of these developmental neuropsychiatric conditions.

Improved neuropsychological and neurological functioning across three antiretroviral regimens in diverse resource-limited settings: AIDS Clinical Trials Group study a5199, the International Neurological Study

BACKGROUND

AIDS Clinical Trials Group (ACTG) A5199 compared the neurological and neuropsychological (NP) effects of 3 antiretroviral regimens in participants infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in resource-limited settings.

METHODS

Participants from Brazil, India, Malawi, Peru, South Africa, Thailand, and Zimbabwe were randomized to 3 antiretroviral treatment arms: A (lamivudine-zidovudine plus efavirenz, n = 289), B (atazanavir, emtricitabine, and didanosine-EC, n = 293), and C (emtricitabine-tenofovir-disoproxil fumarate plus efavirenz, n = 278) as part of the ACTG PEARLS study (A5175). Standardized neurological and neuropsychological (NP) screening examinations (grooved pegboard, timed gait, semantic verbal fluency, and finger tapping) were administered every 24 weeks from February 2006 to May 2010. Associations with neurological and neuropsychological function were estimated from linear and logistic regression models using generalized estimating equations.

RESULTS

The median weeks on study was 168 (Q1 = 96, Q3 = 192) for the 860 participants. NP test scores improved (P < .05) with the exception of semantic verbal fluency. No differences in neurological and neuropsychological functioning between treatment regimens were detected (P > .10). Significant country effects were noted on all NP tests and neurological outcomes (P < .01).

CONCLUSIONS

The study detected no significant differences in neuropsychological and neurological outcomes between randomized ART regimens. Significant improvement occurred in neurocognitive and neurological functioning over time after initiation of ARTs. The etiology of these improvements is likely multifactorial, reflecting reduced central nervous system HIV infection, better general health, and practice effects. This study suggests that treatment with either of the World Health Organization -recommended first-line antiretroviral regimens in resource-limited settings will improve neuropsychological functioning and reduce neurological dysfunction.

CLINICAL TRIALS REGISTRATION

NCT00096824.

Anovaginal and rectovaginal fistula in patients with Crohn's disease

Between 1971 and 1991, details of 67 women with perianal Crohn's disease were recorded prospectively using the Cardiff classification. Two groups were identified according to the presence (n = 29) or absence (n = 38) of anorectal Crohn's fistula involving the vagina. Patients in both groups were of a similar age and had had Crohn's disease for a similar period before diagnosis of perianal involvement. The incidence of associated perianal lesions, superficial ulcers, cavitating ulcers, other fistulas and strictures was not significantly different between the two groups. A greater proportion of patients with anorectal-vaginal fistulation (n = 15) had distal intestinal Crohn's disease (rectal or contiguous colorectal) compared with women with no vaginal fistulation (n = 14). A range of therapies was used to manage women with perianal Crohn's disease, from local surgery to a defunctioning stoma and/or proctectomy. Only 13 of 38 women with perianal Crohn's disease but no vaginal fistula required a defunctioning stoma or proctectomy, whereas 18 of 29 with anorectal-vaginal fistulation underwent these procedures (P < 0.05). A vaginal fistula has a considerable adverse effect on the outcome of perianal Crohn's disease.