Generation of Connexin-Expressing Stable Cell Pools

Stable cell pools have the advantage of providing a definite, consistent, and reproducible transmission of a transgene of interest, compared to transient expression from a plasmid transfection. Stably expressing a transgene of interest in cells under induction is a powerful way to (switch on and) study a gene function in both in vitro and in vivo assays. Taking advantage of the ability of lentivirus (LV) to promote transgene delivery, and genomic integration and expression in both dividing and nondividing cells, a doxycycline-inducible transfer vector expressing a bicistronic transgene was developed to study the function of connexins in HeLa DH cells. Here, delving on connexin 32 (Cx32), we report how to use the backbone of this vector as a tool to generate stable pools to study the function of a gene of interest (GOI), especially with assays involving Ca2+ imaging, employing the GCaMP6s indicator. We describe a step-by-step protocol to produce the LV particle by transient transfection and the direct use of the harvested LV stock to generate stable cell pools. We further present step-by-step immunolabeling protocols to characterize the transgene protein expression by confocal microscopy using an antibody that targets an extracellular domain epitope of Cx32 in living cells, and in fixed permeabilized cells using high affinity anti-Cx32 antibodies. Using common molecular biology laboratory techniques, this protocol can be adapted to generate stable pools expressing any transgene of interest, for both in vitro and in vivo functional assays, including molecular, immune, and optical assays.

Distinct ClC-6 and ClC-7 Cl- sensitivities provide insight into ClC-7's role in lysosomal Cl- homeostasis

ClC-6 and ClC-7 are closely related, intracellular Cl- /H+ antiporters belonging to the CLC family of channels and transporters. They localize to acidic late endosomes and lysosomes and probably function in ionic homeostasis of these contiguous compartments. ClC-7 transport function requires association with the accessory protein Ostm1, whereas ClC-6 transport does not. To elucidate their roles in endo-lysosomes, we measured Cl- - and pH-dependences of over-expressed wild-type ClC-6 and ClC-7, as well as disease-associated mutants, using high-resolution recording protocols. Lowering extracellular Cl- (corresponding to luminal Cl- in endo-lysosomes) reduced ClC-6 currents, whereas it increased transport activity of ClC-7/Ostm1. Low extracellular Cl- activated ClC-7/Ostm 1 under acidic extracellular conditions, as well as under conditions of low intracellular chloride. Activation is conserved in ClC-7Y713C , a variant displaying disrupted PI(3,5)P2 inhibition. Detailed biophysical analysis of disease-associated ClC-6 and ClC-7 gain-of-function (GoF) variants, ClC-6Y553C and ClC-7Y713C , and the ClC-7Y577C and ClC-6Y781C correlates, identified additional functional nuances distinguishing ClC-6 and ClC-7. ClC-7Y577C recapitulated GoF produced by ClC-6Y553C . ClC-6Y781C displayed transport activation qualitatively similar to ClC-7Y713C , although current density did not differ from that of wild-type ClC-6. Finally, rClC-7R760Q , homologous to hClC-7R762Q , an osteopetrosis variant with fast gating kinetics, appeared indifferent to extracellular Cl- , identifying altered Cl- sensitivity as a plausible mechanism underlying disease. Collectively, the present studies underscore the distinct roles of ClC-6 and ClC-7 within the context of their respective localization to late endosomes and lysosomes. In particular, we suggest the atypical inhibition of ClC-7 by luminal Cl- serves to limit excessive intraluminal Cl- accumulation. KEY POINTS: ClC-6 and ClC-7 are late endosomal and lysosomal 2 Cl- /1 H+ exchangers, respectively. When targeted to the plasma membrane, both activate slowly at positive voltages. ClC-6 activity is decreased in low extracellular (i.e. luminal) chloride, whereas ClC-7 is activated by low luminal chloride, even at acidic pH. The functional gain-of-function phenotypes of the ClC-6 and ClC-7 disease mutations ClC-6Y553C and ClC-7Y715C are maintained when introduced in their respective homologues, ClC-7Y577C and ClC-6Y781C , with all mutations retaining chloride dependence of the respective wild type (WT). An osteopetrosis mutation of ClC-7 displaying fast gating kinetics (R762Q) was less sensitive to extracellular chloride compared to WT. The opposing substrate dependences of ClC-6 and ClC-7 Cl- / H+ exchangers point to non-overlapping physiological functions, leading us to propose that inhibition of ClC-7 by luminal chloride and protons serves to prevent osmotic stress imposed by hyper-accumulation of chloride.

Biophysical Aspects of Neurodegenerative and Neurodevelopmental Disorders Involving Endo-/Lysosomal CLC Cl-/H+ Antiporters

Endosomes and lysosomes are intracellular vesicular organelles with important roles in cell functions such as protein homeostasis, clearance of extracellular material, and autophagy. Endolysosomes are characterized by an acidic luminal pH that is critical for proper function. Five members of the gene family of voltage-gated ChLoride Channels (CLC proteins) are localized to endolysosomal membranes, carrying out anion/proton exchange activity and thereby regulating pH and chloride concentration. Mutations in these vesicular CLCs cause global developmental delay, intellectual disability, various psychiatric conditions, lysosomal storage diseases, and neurodegeneration, resulting in severe pathologies or even death. Currently, there is no cure for any of these diseases. Here, we review the various diseases in which these proteins are involved and discuss the peculiar biophysical properties of the WT transporter and how these properties are altered in specific neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Connexin Hemichannel Activation by S-Nitrosoglutathione Synergizes Strongly with Photodynamic Therapy Potentiating Anti-Tumor Bystander Killing

Simple Summary

Bystander effects depend on direct cell-cell communication and/or paracrine signaling mediated by the release of soluble factors into the extracellular environment and may greatly influence therapy outcome. Although the limited data available suggest a role for intercellular gap junction channels, far less is known about the role of connexin hemichannels. Here, we investigated bystander effects induced by photodynamic therapy in syngeneic murine melanoma models in vivo. We determined that (i) photoactivation of a photosensitizer triggered calcium-dependent cell death pathways in both irradiated and bystander tumor cells; (ii) hemichannel activity and adenosine triphosphate release were key factors for the induction of bystander cell death; and (iii) bystander cell killing and antitumor response elicited by photodynamic therapy were greatly enhanced by combination treatment with S-nitrosoglutathione, which promoted hemichannel opening in these experimental conditions. Therefore, these findings in a preclinical model have important translational potential.

Abstract

In this study, we used B16-F10 cells grown in the dorsal skinfold chamber (DSC) preparation that allowed us to gain optical access to the processes triggered by photodynamic therapy (PDT). Partial irradiation of a photosensitized melanoma triggered cell death in non-irradiated tumor cells. Multiphoton intravital microscopy with genetically encoded fluorescence indicators revealed that bystander cell death was mediated by paracrine signaling due to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) release from connexin (Cx) hemichannels (HCs). Intercellular calcium (Ca²⁺) waves propagated from irradiated to bystander cells promoting intracellular Ca²⁺ transfer from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) to mitochondria and rapid activation of apoptotic pathways. Combination treatment with S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO), an endogenous nitric oxide (NO) donor that biases HCs towards the open state, greatly potentiated anti-tumor bystander killing via enhanced Ca²⁺ signaling, leading to a significant reduction of post-irradiation tumor mass. Our results demonstrate that HCs can be exploited to dramatically increase cytotoxic bystander effects and reveal a previously unappreciated role for HCs in tumor eradication promoted by PDT.

miRNA and mRNA Profiling Links Connexin Deficiency to Deafness via Early Oxidative Damage in the Mouse Stria Vascularis

Pathogenic mutations in the non-syndromic hearing loss and deafness 1 (DFNB1) locus are the primary cause of monogenic inheritance for prelingual hearing loss. To unravel molecular pathways involved in etiopathology and look for early degeneration biomarkers, we used a system biology approach to analyze Cx30^−/− mice at an early cochlear post-natal developmental stage. These mice are a DFNB1 mouse model with severely reduced expression levels of two connexins in the inner ear, Cx30, and Cx26. Integrated analysis of miRNA and mRNA expression profiles in the cochleae of Cx30^−/− mice at post-natal day 5 revealed the overexpression of five miRNAs (miR-34c, miR-29b, miR-29c, miR-141, and miR-181a) linked to apoptosis, oxidative stress, and cochlear degeneration, which have Sirt1 as a common target of transcriptional and/or post-transcriptional regulation. In young adult Cx30^−/− mice (3 months of age), these alterations culminated with blood barrier disruption in the Stria vascularis (SV), which is known to have the highest aerobic metabolic rate of all cochlear structures and whose microvascular alterations contribute to age-related degeneration and progressive decline of auditory function. Our experimental validation of selected targets links hearing acquisition failure in Cx30^−/− mice, early oxidative stress, and metabolic dysregulation to the activation of the Sirt1–p53 axis. This is the first integrated analysis of miRNA and mRNA in the cochlea of the Cx30^−/− mouse model, providing evidence that connexin downregulation determines a miRNA-mediated response which leads to chronic exhaustion of cochlear antioxidant defense mechanisms and consequent SV dysfunction. Our analyses support the notion that connexin dysfunction intervenes early on during development, causing vascular damage later on in life. This study identifies also early miRNA-mediated biomarkers of hearing impairment, either inherited or age related.

Organ-on-chip model shows that ATP release through connexin hemichannels drives spontaneous Ca2+ signaling in non-sensory cells of the greater epithelial ridge in the developing cochlea

Prior work supports the hypothesis that ATP release through connexin hemichannels drives spontaneous Ca2+ signaling in non-sensory cells of the greater epithelial ridge (GER) in the developing cochlea; however, direct proof is lacking. To address this issue, we plated cochlear organotypic cultures (COCs) and whole cell-based biosensors with nM ATP sensitivity (ATP-WCBs) at the bottom and top of an ad hoc designed transparent microfluidic chamber, respectively. By performing dual multiphoton Ca2+ imaging, we monitored the propagation of intercellular Ca2+ waves in the GER of COCs and ATP-dependent Ca2+ responses in overlying ATP-WCBs. Ca2+ signals in both COCs and ATP-WCBs were inhibited by supplementing the extracellular medium with ATP diphosphohydrolase (apyrase). Spontaneous Ca2+ signals were strongly depressed in the presence of Gjb6-/- COCs, in which connexin 30 (Cx30) is absent and connexin 26 (Cx26) is strongly downregulated. In contrast, spontaneous Ca2+ signals were not affected by replacement of Panx1-/- with Panx1+/+ COCs in the microfluidic chamber. Similar results were obtained by estimating ATP release from COCs using a classical luciferin-luciferase bioluminescence assay. Therefore, connexin hemichannels and not pannexin 1 channels mediate the release of ATP that is responsible for Ca2+ wave propagation in the developing mouse cochlea. The technological advances presented here have the potential to shed light on a plethora of unrelated open issues that involve paracrine signaling in physiology and pathology and cannot be addressed with standard methods.