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Nathanson SD, Detmar M, Padera TP, Yates LR, Welch DR, Beadnell TC, Scheid AD, Wrenn ED, Cheung K. Mechanisms of breast cancer metastasis. Clin Exp Metastasis 2021; 39:117-137. [PMID: 33950409 PMCID: PMC8568733 DOI: 10.1007/s10585-021-10090-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Invasive breast cancer tends to metastasize to lymph nodes and systemic sites. The management of metastasis has evolved by focusing on controlling the growth of the disease in the breast/chest wall, and at metastatic sites, initially by surgery alone, then by a combination of surgery with radiation, and later by adding systemic treatments in the form of chemotherapy, hormone manipulation, targeted therapy, immunotherapy and other treatments aimed at inhibiting the proliferation of cancer cells. It would be valuable for us to know how breast cancer metastasizes; such knowledge would likely encourage the development of therapies that focus on mechanisms of metastasis and might even allow us to avoid toxic therapies that are currently used for this disease. For example, if we had a drug that targeted a gene that is critical for metastasis, we might even be able to cure a vast majority of patients with breast cancer. By bringing together scientists with expertise in molecular aspects of breast cancer metastasis, and those with expertise in the mechanical aspects of metastasis, this paper probes interesting aspects of the metastasis cascade, further enlightening us in our efforts to improve the outcome from breast cancer treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- S David Nathanson
- Department of Surgery, Henry Ford Cancer Institute, 2799 W Grand Boulevard, Detroit, MI, USA.
| | - Michael Detmar
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Timothy P Padera
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | | | - Danny R Welch
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center and University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Thomas C Beadnell
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center and University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Adam D Scheid
- Department of Cancer Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center and University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Emma D Wrenn
- Translational Research Program, Public Health Sciences and Human Biology Divisions, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA.,Molecular and Cellular Biology Graduate Program, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kevin Cheung
- Translational Research Program, Public Health Sciences and Human Biology Divisions, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA, USA
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Pease LR, Felts SJ, Scheid AD, Tang X, Kalari KR. Abstract P4-09-03: Phenotypes of breast tumor cells and normal lymphocytes are determined by the integration of minor changes in expression of multiple genes: A new dimension in quantitative inheritance. Cancer Res 2020. [DOI: 10.1158/1538-7445.sabcs19-p4-09-03] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Breast tumors develop under environmental pressures with phenotypically variant cells generated by mutation and epigenetic changes providing the substrate for clonal selection. Chromosomal mutations are a feature of spontaneous breast tumors in the BALB-neuT mouse model. However, there is little evidence that specific changes in chromosomal structure or ploidy confer selective advantage in these spontaneous tumors. The prominent exception is a consistent loss of chromosome 4, a little understood feature common to several mouse tumors. We previously measured heterozygosity in spontaneous breast tumors from FVB X BALB-neuT F1 mice using Illumina’s Golden Gate assay. In addition to the expected gain and loss of heterozygosity (LOH) evident throughout the genomes of a cohort of spontaneous tumors, the assay also detected wide-spread stochastic pseudo-“LOH” at 600 discrete loci spread throughout the genome in unique patterns among the tumors. Several of these positions were examined by sequence analysis revealing no deviations from the WT sequences, suggesting the detected “LOH” may have been generated by epigenetic modification of DNA which altered sequence detection. While, epigenetically modified DNA templates recapitulated the observed “LOH” signals, no canonical CpG motifs were present in the majority of the 600 loci probed, suggesting that an unusual DNA modification could be responsible for the unexpected wide-spread stochastic structural changes in the breast tumor DNA. We next assessed whether these putative epigenetic changes in DNA structure might impact gene regulation, and have reported that the stochastic pattern observed as “LOH” in DNA was recapitulated in the transcriptomes in unique patterns among the tumors. A direct correlation between the number of “LOH” variants and the down regulation of hundreds of non-polymorphic genes in the transcriptome also was noted. Furthermore, pathway analyses of the genes exhibiting changes in allelic ratios in these tumors revealed significant enrichments within gene networks regulating tissue homeostasis and antigen presentation, providing strong evidence that the perturbations in gene expression translated into selectable tumor cell phenotypes. We now have extended this study to examine the relationship between the magnitude of change in the expression of genes mapping within the pathways regulating tissue homeostasis (Molecular Mechanisms of Cancer). A remarkable feature of the flagged genes is that the magnitude of change in gene expression was not great in each case, yet the biological consequences were strongly reflected in the evolutionary history of the tumors. Importantly, the polymorphisms marking the parental alleles are mostly silent, not altering the structure of the encoded products. Therefore magnitude and timing of gene expression are the likely determinants of phenotypic variation. Each tumor contained several outliers within the pathways regulating tissue homeostasis, suggesting that the integration of multiple small perturbations in the expression of genes comprising functional networks could influence the biology properties of the tumor cells. Overall expression of the loci marked by allelic outliers was significantly below the average expression found among tumors in the cohort highlighting the importance of down regulation of one allele in the establishment of selectable traits. We find a similar direct correlation of multiple small changes in the transcriptome of normal lymphocytes with immune response phenotypes, suggesting this principle of integration of multiple small deviations in gene expression applies widely to the phenotypes of normal cells, tumors, and by extension to organismic traits.
Citation Format: Larry R Pease, Sara J Felts, Adam D Scheid, Xiaojia Tang, Krishna R Kalari. Phenotypes of breast tumor cells and normal lymphocytes are determined by the integration of minor changes in expression of multiple genes: A new dimension in quantitative inheritance [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 2019 San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium; 2019 Dec 10-14; San Antonio, TX. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2020;80(4 Suppl):Abstract nr P4-09-03.
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Abstract
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) encodes for only a fraction of the proteins that are encoded within the nucleus, and therefore has typically been regarded as a lesser player in cancer biology and metastasis. Accumulating evidence, however, supports an increased role for mtDNA impacting tumor progression and metastatic susceptibility. Unfortunately, due to this delay, there is a dearth of data defining the relative contributions of specific mtDNA polymorphisms (SNP), which leads to an inability to effectively use these polymorphisms to guide and enhance therapeutic strategies and diagnosis. In addition, evidence also suggests that differences in mtDNA impact not only the cancer cells but also the cells within the surrounding tumor microenvironment, suggesting a broad encompassing role for mtDNA polymorphisms in regulating the disease progression. mtDNA may have profound implications in the regulation of cancer biology and metastasis. However, there are still great lengths to go to understand fully its contributions. Thus, herein, we discuss the recent advances in our understanding of mtDNA in cancer and metastasis, providing a framework for future functional validation and discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas C Beadnell
- Department of Cancer Biology, The Kansas University Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA
| | - Adam D Scheid
- Department of Cancer Biology, The Kansas University Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA
| | - Carolyn J Vivian
- Department of Cancer Biology, The Kansas University Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA
| | - Danny R Welch
- Department of Cancer Biology, The Kansas University Medical Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd, Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA. .,The University of Kansas Cancer Center, 3901 Rainbow Blvd., Kansas City, KS, 66160, USA.
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Abstract
The role of genetics in cancer has been recognized for centuries, but most studies elucidating genetic contributions to cancer have understandably focused on the nuclear genome. Mitochondrial contributions to cancer pathogenesis have been documented for decades, but how mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) influences cancer progression and metastasis remains poorly understood. This lack of understanding stems from difficulty isolating the nuclear and mitochondrial genomes as experimental variables, which is critical for investigating direct mtDNA contributions to disease given extensive crosstalk exists between both genomes. Several in vitro and in vivo models have isolated mtDNA as an independent variable from the nuclear genome. This review compares and contrasts different models, their advantages and disadvantages for studying mtDNA contributions to cancer, focusing on the mitochondrial-nuclear exchange (MNX) mouse model and findings regarding tumor progression, metastasis, and other complex cancer-related phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Scheid
- Department of Cancer Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, and The University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Thomas C Beadnell
- Department of Cancer Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, and The University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City, KS, United States
| | - Danny R Welch
- Department of Cancer Biology, The University of Kansas Medical Center, and The University of Kansas Cancer Center, Kansas City, KS, United States.
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Wang L, Felts SJ, Van Keulen VP, Scheid AD, Block MS, Markovic SN, Pease LR, Zhang Y. Integrative Genome-Wide Analysis of Long Noncoding RNAs in Diverse Immune Cell Types of Melanoma Patients. Cancer Res 2018; 78:4411-4423. [PMID: 29895674 PMCID: PMC6072578 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-18-0529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2018] [Accepted: 06/05/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Genome-wide identification and characterization of long noncoding RNAs (lncRNA) in individual immune cell lineages helps us better understand the driving mechanisms behind melanoma and advance personalized patient treatment. To elucidate the transcriptional landscape in diverse immune cell types of peripheral blood cells (PBC) in stage IV melanoma, we used whole transcriptome RNA sequencing to profile lncRNAs in CD4+, CD8+, and CD14+ PBC from 132 patient samples. Our integrative computational approach identified 27,625 expressed lncRNAs, 2,744 of which were novel. Both T cells (i.e., CD4+ and CD8+ PBC) and monocytes (i.e., CD14+ PBC) exhibited differential transcriptional expression profiles between patients with melanoma and healthy subjects. Cis- and trans-level coexpression analysis suggested that lncRNAs are potentially involved in many important immune-related pathways and the programmed cell death receptor 1 checkpoint pathways. We also identified nine gene coexpression modules significantly associated with melanoma status, all of which were significantly enriched for three mRNA translation processes. Age and melanoma traits closely correlated with each other, implying that melanoma contains age-associated immune changes. Our computational prediction analysis suggests that many cis- and trans-regulatory lncRNAs could interact with multiple transcriptional and posttranscriptional regulatory elements in CD4+, CD8+, and CD14+ PBC, respectively. These results provide novel insights into the regulatory mechanisms involving lncRNAs in individual immune cell types in melanoma and can help expedite cell type-specific immunotherapy treatments for such diseases.Significance: These findings elucidate melanoma-associated changes to the noncoding transcriptional landscape of distinct immune cell classes, thus providing cell type-specific guidance to targeted immunotherapy regimens. Cancer Res; 78(15); 4411-23. ©2018 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Wang
- Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, Maryland
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Sara J Felts
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Virginia P Van Keulen
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Adam D Scheid
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Matthew S Block
- Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Svetomir N Markovic
- Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Larry R Pease
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, Minnesota.
| | - Yuji Zhang
- Division of Biostatistics and Bioinformatics, University of Maryland Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, Baltimore, Maryland.
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland
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Scheid AD, Van Keulen VP, Felts SJ, Neier SC, Middha S, Nair AA, Techentin RW, Gilbert BK, Jen J, Neuhauser C, Zhang Y, Pease LR. Gene Expression Signatures Characterized by Longitudinal Stability and Interindividual Variability Delineate Baseline Phenotypic Groups with Distinct Responses to Immune Stimulation. J Immunol 2018; 200:1917-1928. [PMID: 29352003 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1701099] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 11/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Human immunity exhibits remarkable heterogeneity among individuals, which engenders variable responses to immune perturbations in human populations. Population studies reveal that, in addition to interindividual heterogeneity, systemic immune signatures display longitudinal stability within individuals, and these signatures may reliably dictate how given individuals respond to immune perturbations. We hypothesize that analyzing relationships among these signatures at the population level may uncover baseline immune phenotypes that correspond with response outcomes to immune stimuli. To test this, we quantified global gene expression in peripheral blood CD4+ cells from healthy individuals at baseline and following CD3/CD28 stimulation at two time points 1 mo apart. Systemic CD4+ cell baseline and poststimulation molecular immune response signatures (MIRS) were defined by identifying genes expressed at levels that were stable between time points within individuals and differential among individuals in each state. Iterative differential gene expression analyses between all possible phenotypic groupings of at least three individuals using the baseline and stimulated MIRS gene sets revealed shared baseline and response phenotypic groupings, indicating the baseline MIRS contained determinants of immune responsiveness. Furthermore, significant numbers of shared phenotype-defining sets of determinants were identified in baseline data across independent healthy cohorts. Combining the cohorts and repeating the analyses resulted in identification of over 6000 baseline immune phenotypic groups, implying that the MIRS concept may be useful in many immune perturbation contexts. These findings demonstrate that patterns in complex gene expression variability can be used to define immune phenotypes and discover determinants of immune responsiveness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam D Scheid
- Immunology Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Virginia P Van Keulen
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Sara J Felts
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Steven C Neier
- Immunology Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Sumit Middha
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Asha A Nair
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Robert W Techentin
- Special Purpose Processor Development Group, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55901
| | - Barry K Gilbert
- Special Purpose Processor Development Group, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55901
| | - Jin Jen
- Medical Genome Facility Gene Expression Core and Department of Experimental Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905; and
| | - Claudia Neuhauser
- Informatics Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455
| | - Yuji Zhang
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN 55905
| | - Larry R Pease
- Immunology Program, Mayo Clinic Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN 55905; .,Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine and Science, Rochester, MN 55905
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Felts SJ, Van Keulen VP, Scheid AD, Allen KS, Bradshaw RK, Jen J, Peikert T, Middha S, Zhang Y, Block MS, Markovic SN, Pease LR. Gene expression patterns in CD4+ peripheral blood cells in healthy subjects and stage IV melanoma patients. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2015; 64:1437-47. [PMID: 26245876 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-015-1745-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2015] [Accepted: 07/18/2015] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Melanoma patients exhibit changes in immune responsiveness in the local tumor environment, draining lymph nodes, and peripheral blood. Immune-targeting therapies are revolutionizing melanoma patient care increasingly, and studies show that patients derive clinical benefit from these newer agents. Nonetheless, predicting which patients will benefit from these costly therapies remains a challenge. In an effort to capture individual differences in immune responsiveness, we are analyzing patterns of gene expression in human peripheral blood cells using RNAseq. Focusing on CD4+ peripheral blood cells, we describe multiple categories of immune regulating genes, which are expressed in highly ordered patterns shared by cohorts of healthy subjects and stage IV melanoma patients. Despite displaying conservation in overall transcriptome structure, CD4+ peripheral blood cells from melanoma patients differ quantitatively from healthy subjects in the expression of more than 2000 genes. Moreover, 1300 differentially expressed genes are found in transcript response patterns following activation of CD4+ cells ex vivo, suggesting that widespread functional discrepancies differentiate the immune systems of healthy subjects and melanoma patients. While our analysis reveals that the transcriptome architecture characteristic of healthy subjects is maintained in cancer patients, the genes expressed differentially among individuals and across cohorts provide opportunities for understanding variable immune states as well as response potentials, thus establishing a foundation for predicting individual responses to stimuli such as immunotherapeutic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara J Felts
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Virginia P Van Keulen
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Adam D Scheid
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Kathleen S Allen
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
| | - Renee K Bradshaw
- Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Jin Jen
- Division of Experimental Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Tobias Peikert
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
- Division of Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Sumit Middha
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
- Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, NY, USA
| | - Yuji Zhang
- Division of Biomedical Statistics and Informatics, Department of Health Sciences, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Matthew S Block
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
- Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Svetomir N Markovic
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA
- Department of Oncology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
- Division of Hematology, Department of Internal Medicine, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA
| | - Larry R Pease
- Department of Immunology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, 200 First Street SW, Rochester, MN, 55905, USA.
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Karyampudi L, Lamichhane P, Scheid AD, Kalli KR, Shreeder B, Krempski JW, Behrens MD, Knutson KL. Accumulation of memory precursor CD8 T cells in regressing tumors following combination therapy with vaccine and anti-PD-1 antibody. Cancer Res 2014; 74:2974-85. [PMID: 24728077 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-13-2564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Immunosuppression in the tumor microenvironment blunts vaccine-induced immune effectors. PD-1/B7-H1 is an important inhibitory axis in the tumor microenvironment. Our goal in this study was to determine the effect of blocking this inhibitory axis during and following vaccination against breast cancer. We observed that using anti-PD-1 antibody and a multipeptide vaccine (consisting of immunogenic peptides derived from breast cancer antigens, neu, legumain, and β-catenin) as a combination therapy regimen for the treatment of breast cancer-bearing mice prolonged the vaccine-induced progression-free survival period. This prolonged survival was associated with increase in number of Tc1 and Tc2 CD8 T cells with memory precursor phenotype, CD27+IL-7RhiT-betlo, and decrease in number of PD-1+ dendritic cells (DC) in regressing tumors and enhanced antigen reactivity of tumor-infiltrating CD8 T cells. It was also observed that blockade of PD-1 on tumor DCs enhanced IL-7R expression on CD8 T cells. Taken together, our results suggest that PD-1 blockade enhances breast cancer vaccine efficacy by altering both CD8 T cell and DC components of the tumor microenvironment. Given the recent success of anti-PD-1 monotherapy, our results are encouraging for developing combination therapies for the treatment of patients with cancer in which anti-PD-1 monotherapy alone may be ineffective (i.e., PD-L1-negative tumors).
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Affiliation(s)
- Lavakumar Karyampudi
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccines and Immune Therapies Program, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida; and Departments of Immunology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Purushottam Lamichhane
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccines and Immune Therapies Program, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida; and Departments of Immunology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MinnesotaAuthors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccines and Immune Therapies Program, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida; and Departments of Immunology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Adam D Scheid
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccines and Immune Therapies Program, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida; and Departments of Immunology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Kimberly R Kalli
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccines and Immune Therapies Program, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida; and Departments of Immunology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Barath Shreeder
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccines and Immune Therapies Program, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida; and Departments of Immunology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - James W Krempski
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccines and Immune Therapies Program, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida; and Departments of Immunology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Marshall D Behrens
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccines and Immune Therapies Program, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida; and Departments of Immunology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Keith L Knutson
- Authors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccines and Immune Therapies Program, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida; and Departments of Immunology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MinnesotaAuthors' Affiliations: Cancer Vaccines and Immune Therapies Program, Vaccine & Gene Therapy Institute of Florida, Port St. Lucie, Florida; and Departments of Immunology and Oncology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
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