The macroevolutionary consequences of phenotypic integration: from development to deep time

Phenotypic integration is a pervasive characteristic of organisms. Numerous analyses have demonstrated that patterns of phenotypic integration are conserved across large clades, but that significant variation also exists. For example, heterochronic shifts related to different mammalian reproductive strategies are reflected in postcranial skeletal integration and in coordination of bone ossification. Phenotypic integration and modularity have been hypothesized to shape morphological evolution, and we extended simulations to confirm that trait integration can influence both the trajectory and magnitude of response to selection. We further demonstrate that phenotypic integration can produce both more and less disparate organisms than would be expected under random walk models by repartitioning variance in preferred directions. This effect can also be expected to favour homoplasy and convergent evolution. New empirical analyses of the carnivoran cranium show that rates of evolution, in contrast, are not strongly influenced by phenotypic integration and show little relationship to morphological disparity, suggesting that phenotypic integration may shape the direction of evolutionary change, but not necessarily the speed of it. Nonetheless, phenotypic integration is problematic for morphological clocks and should be incorporated more widely into models that seek to accurately reconstruct both trait and organismal evolution.

Adsorption characteristics of brilliant green dye on kaolin

Experimental investigations were carried out to adsorb toxic brilliant green dye from aqueous medium using kaolin as an adsorbent. Characterization of kaolin is done by measuring: (i) particle size distribution using particle size analyzer, (ii) BET surface area using BET surface analyzer, and (iii) structural analysis using X-ray diffractometer. The effects of initial dye concentration, contact time, kaolin dose, stirring speed, pH and temperature were studied for the adsorption of brilliant green in batch mode. Adsorption experiments indicate that the extent of adsorption is strongly dependent on pH of solution. Free energy of adsorption (DeltaG0), enthalpy (DeltaH0) and entropy (DeltaS0) changes are calculated to know the nature of adsorption. The calculated values of DeltaG0 at 299K and 323K indicate that the adsorption process is spontaneous. The estimated values of DeltaH0 and DeltaS0 both show the negative sign, which indicate that the adsorption process is exothermic and the dye molecules are organized on the kaolin surface in less randomly fashion than in solution. The adsorption kinetic has been described by first-order, pseudo-second-order and intra-particle-diffusion models. It was observed that the rate of dye adsorption follows pseudo-second-order model for the dye concentration range studied in the present case. Standard adsorption isotherms were used to fit the experimental equilibrium data. It was found that the adsorption of brilliant green on kaolin follows the Langmuir adsorption isotherm.

Altered localization, abnormal modification and loss of function of Sigma receptor-1 in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Intracellular accumulations of mutant, misfolded proteins are major pathological hallmarks of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and related disorders. Recently, mutations in Sigma receptor 1 (SigR1) have been found to cause a form of ALS and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). Our goal was to pinpoint alterations and modifications of SigR1 in ALS and to determine how these changes contribute to the pathogenesis of ALS. In the present study, we found that levels of the SigR1 protein were reduced in lumbar ALS patient spinal cord. SigR1 was abnormally accumulated in enlarged C-terminals and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) structures of alpha motor neurons. These accumulations co-localized with the 20s proteasome subunit. SigR1 accumulations were also observed in SOD1 transgenic mice, cultured ALS-8 patient's fibroblasts with the P56S-VAPB mutation and in neuronal cell culture models. Along with the accumulation of SigR1 and several other proteins involved in protein quality control, severe disturbances in the unfolded protein response and impairment of protein degradation pathways were detected in the above-mentioned cell culture systems. Furthermore, shRNA knockdown of SigR1 lead to deranged calcium signaling and caused abnormalities in ER and Golgi structures in cultured NSC-34 cells. Finally, pharmacological activation of SigR1 induced the clearance of mutant protein aggregates in these cells. Our results support the notion that SigR1 is abnormally modified and contributes to the pathogenesis of ALS.

Loss of function of the ALS protein SigR1 leads to ER pathology associated with defective autophagy and lipid raft disturbances

Intracellular accumulations of altered, misfolded proteins in neuronal and other cells are pathological hallmarks shared by many neurodegenerative diseases including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Mutations in several genes give rise to familial forms of ALS. Mutations in Sigma receptor 1 have been found to cause a juvenile form of ALS and frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD). We recently described altered localization, abnormal modification and loss of function of SigR1 in sporadic ALS. In order to further elucidate the molecular mechanisms underlying SigR1-mediated alterations in sporadic and familial ALS, we extended our previous studies using neuronal SigR1 knockdown cell lines. We found that loss of SigR1 leads to abnormal ER morphology, mitochondrial abnormalities and impaired autophagic degradation. Consistent with these results, we found that endosomal trafficking of EGFR is impaired upon SigR1 knockdown. Furthermore, in SigR1-deficient cells the transport of vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein is inhibited, leading to the accumulation of this cargo protein in the Golgi apparatus. Moreover, depletion of SigR1 destabilized lipid rafts and associated calcium mobilization, confirming the crucial role of SigR1 in lipid raft and intracellular calcium homeostasis. Taken together, our results support the notion that loss of SigR1 function contributes to ALS pathology by causing abnormal ER morphology, lipid raft destabilization and defective endolysosomal pathways.

The correlated evolution of Runx2 tandem repeats, transcriptional activity, and facial length in carnivora

To assess the ability of protein-coding mutations to contribute to subtle, inter-specific morphologic evolution, here, we test the hypothesis that mutations within the protein-coding region of runt-related transcription factor 2 (Runx2) have played a role in facial evolution in 30 species from a naturally evolving group, the mammalian order Carnivora. Consistent with this hypothesis, we find significant correlations between changes in Runx2 glutamine-alanine tandem-repeat ratio, and both Runx2 transcriptional activity and carnivoran facial length. Furthermore, we identify a potential evolutionary mechanism for the correlation between Runx2 tandem repeat ratio and facial length. Specifically, our results are consistent with the Runx2 tandem repeat system providing a flexible genetic mechanism to rapidly change the timing of ossification. These heterochronic changes, in turn, potentially act on existing allometric variation in carnivoran facial length to generate the disparity in adult facial lengths observed among carnivoran species. Our results suggest that despite potentially great pleiotropic effects, changes to the protein-coding regions of genes such as Runx2 do occur and have the potential to affect subtle morphologic evolution across a diverse array of species in naturally evolving lineages.

The evolution of mammalian brain size

Relative brain size has long been considered a reflection of cognitive capacities and has played a fundamental role in developing core theories in the life sciences. Yet, the notion that relative brain size validly represents selection on brain size relies on the untested assumptions that brain-body allometry is restrained to a stable scaling relationship across species and that any deviation from this slope is due to selection on brain size. Using the largest fossil and extant dataset yet assembled, we find that shifts in allometric slope underpin major transitions in mammalian evolution and are often primarily characterized by marked changes in body size. Our results reveal that the largest-brained mammals achieved large relative brain sizes by highly divergent paths. These findings prompt a reevaluation of the traditional paradigm of relative brain size and open new opportunities to improve our understanding of the genetic and developmental mechanisms that influence brain size.

Getting a grip on the evolution of grasping in musteloid carnivorans: a three-dimensional analysis of forelimb shape

The ability to grasp and manipulate is often considered a hallmark of hominins and associated with the evolution of their bipedal locomotion and tool use. Yet, many other mammals use their forelimbs to grasp and manipulate objects. Previous investigations have suggested that grasping may be derived from digging behaviour, arboreal locomotion or hunting behaviour. Here, we test the arboreal origin of grasping and investigate whether an arboreal lifestyle could confer a greater grasping ability in musteloid carnivorans. Moreover, we investigate the morphological adaptations related to grasping and the differences between arboreal species with different grasping abilities. We predict that if grasping is derived from an arboreal lifestyle, then the anatomical specializations of the forelimb for arboreality must be similar to those involved in grasping. We further predict that arboreal species with a well-developed manipulation ability will have articulations that facilitate radio-ulnar rotation. We use ancestral character state reconstructions of lifestyle and grasping ability to understand the evolution of both traits. Finally, we use a surface sliding semi-landmark approach capable of quantifying the articulations in their full complexity. Our results largely confirm our predictions, demonstrating that musteloids with greater grasping skills differ markedly from others in the shape of their forelimb bones. These analyses further suggest that the evolution of an arboreal lifestyle likely preceded the development of enhanced grasping ability.

Real-time inverse kinematics techniques for anthropomorphic limbs

In this paper we develop a set of inverse kinematics algorithms suitable for an anthropomorphic arm or leg. We use a combination of analytical and numerical methods to solve generalized inverse kinematics problems including position, orientation, and aiming constraints. Our combination of analytical and numerical methods results in faster and more reliable algorithms than conventional inverse Jacobian and optimization-based techniques. Additionally, unlike conventional numerical algorithms, our methods allow the user to interactively explore all possible solutions using an intuitive set of parameters that define the redundancy of the system.

Comparative study of lactate removal in short term massage of extremities, active recovery and a passive recovery period after supramaximal exercise sessions

This investigation highlights the comparison of blood lactate removal during the period of recovery in which the subjects were required to sit down as a passive rest period, followed by active recovery at 30% VO(2)max and short term body massage, as the three modes of recovery used. Ten male athletes participated in the study. Exercise was performed on a bicycle ergometer with loads at 150% VO(2)max, each session lasting 1 min, interspaced with 15 sec rest periods, until exhaustion. Blood lactate concentration was recorded at recovery periods of 0,3, 5, 10, 20, 30, and 40 min, while VO(2), VCO(2) and heart rate were recorded every 30 sec for 30 min. The highest mean lactate value was found after 3 min of recovery irrespective of the type of modality applied. Significantly lower half life of lactate was observed during active recovery (15.7 +/- 2.5 min) period, while short term massage as a means of recovery required 21.8 +/- 3.5 min and did not show any significant difference from a passive type of sitting recovery period of 21.5 +/- 2.8 min. Analysis of lactate values indicated no remarkable difference between massage and a passive type of sitting recovery period. It was observed that in short term massage recovery, more oxygen was consumed as compared to a passive type of sitting recovery. It is concluded from the study that the short term body massage is ineffective in enhancing the lactate removal and that an active type of recovery is the best modality for enhancing lactate removal after exercise.

A Practical Guide to Sliding and Surface Semilandmarks in Morphometric Analyses

Advances in imaging technologies, such as computed tomography (CT) and surface scanning, have facilitated the rapid generation of large datasets of high-resolution three-dimensional (3D) specimen reconstructions in recent years. The wealth of phenotypic information available from these datasets has the potential to inform our understanding of morphological variation and evolution. However, the ever-increasing ease of compiling 3D datasets has created an urgent need for sophisticated methods of capturing high-density shape data that reflect the biological complexity in form. Landmarks often do not take full advantage of the rich shape information available from high-resolution 3D specimen reconstructions, as they are typically restricted to sutures or processes that can be reliably identified across specimens and exclude most of the surface morphology. The development of sliding and surface semilandmark techniques has greatly enhanced the quantification of shape, but their application to diverse datasets can be challenging, especially when dealing with the variable absence of some regions within a structure. Using comprehensive 3D datasets of crania that span the entire clades of birds, squamates and caecilians, we demonstrate methods for capturing morphology across incredibly diverse shapes. We detail many of the difficulties associated with applying semilandmarks to comparable regions across highly disparate structures, and provide solutions to some of these challenges, while considering the consequences of decisions one makes in applying these approaches. Finally, we analyze the benefits of high-density sliding semilandmark approaches over landmark-only studies for capturing shape across diverse organisms and discuss the promise of these approaches for the study of organismal form.

Endoscopic foraminoplasty: a prospective study on 250 consecutive patients with independent evaluation

OBJECTIVE

This study focused on the efficacy of endoscopic decompression of the foramen guided by endoscopic aware-state pain source definition.

BACKGROUND DATA

Endoscopic foraminoplasty consists of undercutting of the facet joint and endoscopic discectomy, mobilization and neurolysis of the exiting and transiting nerves, and ablation of osteophytes. This study sought the outcome of endoscopic foraminoplasty in 250 consecutive patients followed for a minimum of 2 years, reviewed and assessed by an external independent assessor. It was applied to patients with back pain and sciatica in multilevel degenerative disc disease and also to those with prior surgery.

METHODS

A prospective study of endoscopic laser foraminoplasty was performed on 121 males and 129 females with an average age of 48 years (21-86 years), followed for an average period of 30 months (26-43 months). The average preoperative duration of back, buttock, or leg pain was 6.1 years (5-11 years). A total of 30% had undergone prior open spinal surgery.

RESULTS

The cohort integrity at follow up was 97%. Outcome was analyzed using the percentage change in Oswestry Disability Scores and visual analogue pain scores. Clinically relevant change in pain and disability was observed in 73%. Using a percentage change in Oswestry Disability Score of 50 or more to determine good and excellent outcomes, 60% of patients exceeded this score. A total of 95% patients required no further surgical intervention.

CONCLUSIONS

Endoscopic laser foraminoplasty provides a minimalist means of exploring the extraforaminal zone, the foramen, the disc, and the epidural space and performing discectomy, lateral recess decompression, osteophytectomy, and neural mobilization. Performed in the aware state, it serves to identify and localize precisely the causal source of pain in multilevel disc disease, in revision surgery, and in the infirm and elderly without open fusion or decompression.

Antineoplastic agents, 99. Amaryllis belladonna

Amaryllis belladonna bulbs were examined for constituents inhibitory against the murine P-388 lymphocytic leukemia (PS system). Two in vitro active alkaloids, acetylcaranine (2; 9PS ED50 0.23 microgram/ml) and ambelline (3; 9PS ED50 1.6 micrograms/ml), were isolated accompanied by undulatine. However, the non-chiral anhydrolycorinium chloride (5) was found to be the principal antineoplastic (3 PS, 64-69% life extension at dose levels 10 to 20 mg/kg in vivo, ED50 1.4 micrograms/ml in vitro) component. Quaternary chloride 5 has not been located previously among plant or animal biosynthetic products.

Isolation and structures of schleicherastatins 1-7 and schleicheols 1 and 2 from the teak forest medicinal tree Schleichera oleosa

Bioassay (P-388 lymphocytic leukemia cell line)-guided separation of an extract prepared from the bark and stem of the Sri Lankan tree Schleichera oleosa led to the isolation of seven cancer cell growth inhibitory hydroxylated sterols designated schleicherastatins 1-7 (1-7) and two related sterols, schleicheols 1 and 2 (8, 9). The structure of schleicherastatin 1 (1) was completely elucidated by X-ray crystal structure determination. Based upon that defined structure, the remaining new sterol structures were deduced by highfield (300 and 500 MHz) NMR and MS interpretations. In this new series of sterols, hydroxylation at C-22 appears to be important for promoting cancer cell growth inhibition.