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Dobo KL, Kenyon MO, Dirat O, Engel M, Fleetwood A, Martin M, Mattano S, Musso A, McWilliams JC, Papanikolaou A, Parris P, Whritenour J, Yu S, Kalgutkar AS. Practical and Science-Based Strategy for Establishing Acceptable Intakes for Drug Product N-Nitrosamine Impurities. Chem Res Toxicol 2022; 35:475-489. [PMID: 35212515 PMCID: PMC8941624 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrestox.1c00369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
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The potential for N-nitrosamine impurities in
pharmaceutical products presents a challenge for the quality management
of medicinal products. N-Nitrosamines are considered
cohort-of-concern compounds due to the potent carcinogenicity of many
of the structurally simple chemicals within this structural class.
In the past 2 years, a number of drug products containing certain
active pharmaceutical ingredients have been withdrawn or recalled
from the market due to the presence of carcinogenic low-molecular-weight N,N-dialkylnitrosamine impurities. Regulatory
authorities have issued guidance to market authorization holders to
review all commercial drug substances/products for the potential risk
of N-nitrosamine impurities, and in cases where a
significant risk of N-nitrosamine impurity is identified,
analytical confirmatory testing is required. A key factor to consider
prior to analytical testing is the estimation of the daily acceptable
intake (AI) of the N-nitrosamine impurity. A significant
proportion of N-nitrosamine drug product impurities
are unique/complex structures for which the development of low-level
analytical methods is challenging. Moreover, these unique/complex
impurities may be less potent carcinogens compared to simple nitrosamines.
In the present work, our objective was to derive AIs for a large number
of complex N-nitrosamines without carcinogenicity
data that were identified as potential low-level impurities. The impurities
were first cataloged and grouped according to common structural features,
with a total of 13 groups defined with distinct structural features.
Subsequently, carcinogenicity data were reviewed for structurally
related N-nitrosamines relevant to each of the 13
structural groups and group AIs were derived conservatively based
on the most potent N-nitrosamine within each group.
The 13 structural group AIs were used as the basis for assigning AIs
to each of the structurally related complex N-nitrosamine
impurities. The AIs of several N-nitrosamine groups
were found to be considerably higher than those for the simple N,N-dialkylnitrosamines, which translates
to commensurately higher analytical method detection limits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krista L Dobo
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Michelle O Kenyon
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Olivier Dirat
- Global Product Development, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Sandwich CT13 9NJ, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Engel
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Andrew Fleetwood
- East Kent Pharma Consulting Ltd., 10408413, England CT1 2TU, United Kingdom
| | - Matthew Martin
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Computational Safety Sciences, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Susan Mattano
- Sue Mattano Consulting, Mystic, Connecticut 06355, United States
| | - Alyssa Musso
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Genetic Toxicology, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - James Christopher McWilliams
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Small Molecules, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Alexandros Papanikolaou
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Patricia Parris
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Sandwich CT13 9NJ, United Kingdom
| | - Jessica Whritenour
- Drug Safety Research and Development, Global Portfolio and Regulatory Strategy, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Shu Yu
- Pharmaceutical Sciences Small Molecules, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Groton, Connecticut 06340, United States
| | - Amit S Kalgutkar
- Medicine Design, Pfizer Worldwide Research, Development, and Medical, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02139, United States
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Lee M, Al-sharea A, Dragoljevic D, Cooney O, Pernes G, Morgan P, Veiga C, Fleetwood A, Lancaster G, Nagareddy P. A High Salt Diet Drives Atherogenesis by Modulating Immune Cells. Heart Lung Circ 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.hlc.2022.06.533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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Achuthan A, Lupancu T, Lee MC, Fleetwood A, Cook A, Hamilton J. Glucocorticoids ameliorate arthritis through epigenetic regulation of CCL17 production. FASEB J 2020. [DOI: 10.1096/fasebj.2020.34.s1.00656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Parris P, Duncan JN, Fleetwood A, Beierschmitt WP. Calculation of a permitted daily exposure value for the solvent 2-methyltetrahydrofuran. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 87:54-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2017.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Revised: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Harvey J, Fleetwood A, Ogilvie R, Teasdale A, Wilcox P, Spanhaak S. Management of organic impurities in small molecule medicinal products: Deriving safe limits for use in early development. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2016; 84:116-123. [PMID: 28038978 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2016.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Management of organic non-mutagenic impurities (NMIs) in medicinal products is regulated by the ICH Q3A, B and C guidelines that are applicable at late stages of clinical development (Phase III onwards) and as a consequence there is no guidance for the assessment and control of NMIs in early clinical trials. An analysis of several key in vivo toxicology databases supports the ICH Q3A defined concept that a lifetime dose to 1 mg/day of a NMI would not represent a safety concern to patients. In conjunction with routine (Q)SAR approaches, this 1 mg/day value could be used as a universal qualification threshold for a NMI during any stage of clinical development. This analysis also proposes that modification of this 1 mg/day dose using an established methodology (i.e. Modified Haber's Law) could support 5 mg/day or 0.7% (whichever is lower) as an acceptable limit for a NMI in a drug substance or product in early clinical studies (<6 months). Given the controlled nature of clinical development and the knowledge that most toxicities are dose and duration dependent, these proposed NMI limits provide assurance of patient safety throughout clinical development, without the requirement to commission dedicated in vivo toxicology impurity qualification studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Harvey
- GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Park Road, Ware, Hertfordshire, SG12 0DP, United Kingdom.
| | | | - Ron Ogilvie
- Pfizer, Ramsgate Road Sandwich, Kent, CT13 9N, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Teasdale
- AstraZeneca, Silk Road Business Park, Macclesfield, Cheshire, SK10 2NX, United Kingdom
| | - Phil Wilcox
- GlaxoSmithKline R&D, Park Road, Ware, Hertfordshire, SG12 0DP, United Kingdom
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Müller S, Schaffer T, Flogerzi B, Fleetwood A, Weimann R, Schoepfer AM, Seibold F. Galectin-3 modulates T cell activity and is reduced in the inflamed intestinal epithelium in IBD. Inflamm Bowel Dis 2006; 12:588-97. [PMID: 16804396 DOI: 10.1097/01.mib.0000225341.37226.7c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Galectins are involved at different stages in inflammation. Galectin-3, although mostly described as proinflammatory, can also act as an immunomodulator by inducing apoptosis in T cells. The present study aims to determine galectin-3 expression in the normal and inflamed intestinal mucosa and to define its role in T cell activity. MATERIALS AND METHODS Galectin-3 was detected by quantitative polymerase chain reaction with total RNA from endoscopic biopsies and by immunohistochemistry. Biopsies and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were stimulated in vitro and were used to assess the functional consequences of inhibition or exogenous addition of galectin-3. RESULTS Galectin-3 is expressed at comparable levels in controls and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) patients in remission. In the normal mucosa, galectin-3 protein was mainly observed in differentiated enterocytes, preferentially at the basolateral side. However, galectin-3 was significantly downregulated in inflamed biopsies from IBD patients. Ex vivo stimulation of uninflamed biopsies with tumor necrosis factor led to similar galectin-3 messenger RNA downregulation as in vivo. When peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were analyzed, galectin-3 was mainly produced by monocytes. Upon mitogen stimulation, we observed increased proliferation and decreased activation-induced cell death of peripheral blood T cells in the presence of galectin-3-specific small interfering RNA. In contrast, exogenous addition of recombinant galectin-3 led to reduced proliferation of mitogen-stimulated peripheral blood T cells. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that downregulation of epithelial galectin-3 in the inflamed mucosa reflects a normal immunological consequence, whereas under noninflammatory conditions, its constitutive expression may help to prevent inappropriate immune responses against commensal bacteria or food compounds. Therefore, galectin-3 may prove valuable for manipulating disease activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Müller
- Department of Clinical Research, Division of Gastroenterology, University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland.
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Scalzo S, Corkill JE, Shanks DJ, Rowan TG, Delaval J, Fleetwood A, Murphy M, Hart CA. Phenotypic and genotypic changes in Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotype typhimurium during passage in intestines of broiler chickens fed on diets that included ionophore anticoccidial supplements. J Clin Microbiol 2004; 42:3399-405. [PMID: 15297474 PMCID: PMC497649 DOI: 10.1128/jcm.42.8.3399-3405.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of continuous in-feed administration of anticoccidial agents on antimicrobial sensitivity and the level of bacterial shedding in poultry experimentally infected with Salmonella enterica subsp. enterica serotype Typhimurium definitive type 104 (DT104) were investigated. On day 0, 1,200 1-day-old Salmonella-free broiler chicks were placed into 50 pens, and the pens were randomly allocated to one of five treatments: nonsupplemented (negative control; T1), monensin at 120 mg/kg of diet (T2), salinomycin at 60 mg/kg of diet (T3), semduramicin at 20 mg/kg of diet (T4), or semduramicin at 25 mg/kg of diet (T5). Each bird was inoculated with a well-characterized strain of serotype Typhimurium DT104 on day 10. On day 49, the birds were euthanatized humanely. Bulk fecal samples were collected on days 13, 43, and 48 and were examined for organisms which had acquired resistance. The genetic basis of acquired resistance was determined from representative samples of isolates. Of 784 Salmonella-selective plates supplemented with antimicrobial agents, only 33 showed growth. These isolates came from all treatment regimens, including the nonsupplemented control. A number of phenotypic changes were observed; these included changes in motility, phage type, and agglutination properties. Supplementation of the diet with an anticoccidial drug does not appear to affect antimicrobial resistance or the level of excretion of salmonellae. Most of the changes observed do not seem to be related to the presence of a supplement in feed. Salmonellae appear to be capable of acquiring antimicrobial resistance and phenotypic changes independently of specific antimicrobial selection pressures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Scalzo
- Veterinary Medicine Research and Development, Pfizer Animal Health, IPC 896, Ramsgate Rd., Sandwich, Kent CT13 9NJ, United Kingdom
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Fleetwood A. BSE in cattle born after July 31, 1996, in Great Britain. Vet Rec 2002; 151:551; author reply 552. [PMID: 12448497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
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Longley RL, Woods A, Fleetwood A, Cowling GJ, Gallagher JT, Couchman JR. Control of morphology, cytoskeleton and migration by syndecan-4. J Cell Sci 1999; 112 ( Pt 20):3421-31. [PMID: 10504291 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.112.20.3421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Syndecan-4 is a widely expressed transmembrane heparan sulfate proteoglycan which localizes to focal adhesions. Previous studies showed that the syndecan-4 cytoplasmic domain can associate with and potentiate the activity of protein kinase C, which is required for focal adhesion formation. To examine further the role of syndecan-4 in cell adhesion, we expressed syndecan-4 cDNA constructs in CHO-K1 cells. Syndecan-2 transfection was used to confirm effects seen were specific for syndecan-4. Cells overexpressing full length syndecan-4 core protein exhibited a more flattened, fibroblastic morphology, with increased focal adhesion formation and decreased cell motility. Expression of a syndecan-4 core protein with either a partial or complete deletion of the cytoplasmic domain or of an antisense construct led to markedly decreased spreading and focal adhesion formation, a more epithelioid morphology, and decreased motility. Overexpression of syndecan-2 changed the adhesive phenotype, but did not markedly alter focal adhesion and microfilament bundle formation. The data suggest that syndecan-4 is a regulator of focal adhesion and stress fiber formation, and influences both morphology and migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- R L Longley
- Department of Cell Biology and Cell Adhesion and Matrix Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA.
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Jayson GC, Vives C, Paraskeva C, Schofield K, Coutts J, Fleetwood A, Gallagher JT. Coordinated modulation of the fibroblast growth factor dual receptor mechanism during transformation from human colon adenoma to carcinoma. Int J Cancer 1999; 82:298-304. [PMID: 10389767 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0215(19990719)82:2<298::aid-ijc23>3.0.co;2-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
Basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) is dependent on heparan sulphate for its ability to activate the cell surface signal transducing receptor. We have investigated the FGF dual receptor mechanism in a novel model of the transformation from human colon adenoma to carcinoma in vitro. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction showed that mRNA for FGF receptors 1 and 2 were expressed in both the adenoma and carcinoma cells whereas immunocytochemistry showed that the expression of the FGF R1 was reduced significantly in the carcinoma cells. We have reported previously that the composition and sequence of human colon adenoma and carcinoma heparan sulphate (HS) differ in a defined and specific manner. The functional significance of these changes was assessed by affinity co-electrophoresis, which showed that the affinity of adenoma HS for bFGF was 10-fold greater than that of the carcinoma HS (Kd 220 nM vs. 2493 nM, respectively). In addition, Northern studies of the expression of syndecan 1 and 4 mRNA showed that proteoglycan core protein expression was reduced significantly in the carcinoma cells. These findings were associated with a reduced biological response to bFGF in the carcinoma cells that could be partially reversed by the addition of exogenous heparin, suggesting that both the proteoglycan and signal transducing receptor control the cells' response to bFGF.
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MESH Headings
- Adenoma/genetics
- Adenoma/pathology
- Carcinoma/genetics
- Carcinoma/pathology
- Colonic Neoplasms/genetics
- Colonic Neoplasms/pathology
- Disease Progression
- Down-Regulation/drug effects
- Fibroblast Growth Factor 2/pharmacology
- Fibroblast Growth Factors/pharmacology
- Gene Expression Regulation, Neoplastic/drug effects
- Heparin/pharmacology
- Heparitin Sulfate/physiology
- Humans
- Neoplasm Proteins/biosynthesis
- Neoplasm Proteins/genetics
- Proteoglycans/physiology
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Neoplasm/biosynthesis
- RNA, Neoplasm/genetics
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/biosynthesis
- Receptor Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/genetics
- Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 1
- Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 2
- Receptors, Fibroblast Growth Factor/biosynthesis
- Receptors, Fibroblast Growth Factor/genetics
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction
- Signal Transduction
- Tumor Cells, Cultured/drug effects
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Affiliation(s)
- G C Jayson
- Cancer Research Campaign, Department of Medical Oncology, Paterson Institute, Manchester, UK.
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Dawson A, Griffin R, Fleetwood A, Barrett NJ. Farm visits and zoonoses. Commun Dis Rep CDR Rev 1995; 5:R81-6. [PMID: 7606275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Recent reports of outbreaks of gastrointestinal illness, such as cryptosporidiosis, associated with visits to farms have drawn attention to the possible risks of acquiring zoonotic infections through contact with farm animals. These risks seem to be small, but it is important that people who work in urban and rural farms, and such establishments as animal sanctuaries where the general public can come into close contact with farm livestock and other animals, should be alerted to the simple precautions needed to prevent transmission of infections.
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Ward C, Duddridge M, Fenwick J, Gardiner PV, Fleetwood A, Hendrick DJ, Walters EH. Evaluation of albumin as a reference marker of dilution in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid from asthmatic and control subjects. Thorax 1993; 48:518-22. [PMID: 8322239 PMCID: PMC464506 DOI: 10.1136/thx.48.5.518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Standardised expression of results of bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) is problematical in the absence of a validated "denominator" of epithelial lining fluid dilution. The suitability of albumin in BAL fluid has been investigated in groups of clinically stable asthmatic and control subjects. METHODS Absolute levels of albumin in BAL fluid were measured in a preliminary study of 21 asthmatic and 10 control subjects. In a more complex study designed to investigate the origin of albumin sampled at BAL in nine asthmatic and seven control subjects, radiolabelled albumin was injected intravenously five minutes before BAL. RESULTS In the preliminary study levels of albumin in BAL fluid were very similar, with a geometric mean value of 44 (95% CI 35-54) micrograms/ml BAL supernatant for the asthmatic subjects and 41 (95% CI 33-52) micrograms/ml for the controls. The majority of control and asthmatic subjects in the radiolabel study exhibited minimal flux of albumin from the circulation into the BAL aspirate. This finding was not uniform, however, and in a third of the asthmatic subjects an albumin flux equivalent to > 20% of the measurable albumin was found in two or more aliquots of a 3 x 60 ml lavage. CONCLUSIONS The results of this investigation into the source of albumin sampled at BAL suggest that, in general, albumin would be a reasonable reference solute for normalising the degree of dilution of BAL fluid in the groups studied. The origin of albumin was not always restricted to the bronchopulmonary segment under investigation, however, with significant leakage from the blood compartment in some individuals despite the consistency of absolute levels observed in the preliminary study.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Ward
- Chest Unit, Newcastle General Hospital, University of Newcastle upon Tyne
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Abstract
We have measured albumin and total protein concentrations over the first eight weeks of life in a group of preterm babies. The albumin concentration in newborn babies rose from about 20 g/l in 28 weeks gestation babies to about 30 g/l in term babies. The total protein concentration in newborn babies rose from about 40 g/l in 28 week gestation babies to about 60 g/l in term babies. In babies of postnatal age up to 8 weeks the albumin concentration continues to rise at the same rate as the in utero rise in concentration with increasing gestation, regardless of the clinical state of the baby. The total protein concentration, however, remains about the same as at birth. These results allow better clinical interpretation of albumin and total protein concentration in "older" preterm babies.
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Affiliation(s)
- R F Reading
- Princess Mary Maternity Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, U.K
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Abstract
A series of related studies were designed to investigate and quantify the degree of fluid exchange between the lung segment and the interstitium or pulmonary circulation that occurred during a standardized bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL). In 5 subjects undergoing a 3 x 60 ml BAL, the dilution of introduced fluid was calculated at approximately 25% using both technetium colloid and methylene blue. Thus, there was a total dilution volume of about 225 ml. In the same experiment, tritiated water was incorporated into the introduced fluid, and the degree of dilution of tritium in the aspirate was compared with that of the other 2 markers. The dilution of tritium was greater than anticipated, suggesting that around 55 ml of water had effluxed from the lung segment during BAL. The total fluid gain by the segment during BAL was thus approximately 100 ml (44% of the dilution volume), although the contribution of fluid resident in the lung prior to BAL to this volume was not known. The 3 x 60 ml BAL procedures were performed in a further 5 patients 12 h after they had received tritiated water orally. The concentration of urea, a putative "endogenous marker" of dilution, was assayed simultaneously in plasma and aspirate. From these values the fluid normally resident in the lung segment was calculated to contribute at most about 2% to the total aspirated volume. A median of 39% of the 85 ml aspirated was calculated to have come from the circulation or surrounding interstitium by simultaneous measurements of the concentrations of tritium in plasma and lavage aspirate.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
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Affiliation(s)
- C A Kelly
- Department of Medicine, Newcastle General Hospital, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
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