Hematological and Biochemical Assessment of Two Species of Freshwater Mussels, Quadrula quadrula and Amblema plicata, Following Translocation

Nondestructive, sublethal, and sensitive health monitoring tools are needed to assess the health of freshwater mussels (family Unionidae). Recent developments to standardize hemocyte characterization have assisted in the hematologic assessment of wild and captive freshwater mussels. In this study, preliminary baseline hematological reference ranges were established for wild mapleleaf mussels Quadrula quadrula (n = 14) and threeridge mussels Amblema plicata (n = 20) collected from the Muskingum River in Devola, Ohio. Mussels were collected from the wild, and hemolymph was sampled from each mussel in the field upon capture (baseline sample). They were then transported live to a propagation facility. Subsequent hemolymph samples were collected at 2 and 4 weeks and quarterly thereafter for 11 months following translocation. Hemocyte counts, hemocyte morphology, and hemolymph chemistry (Na⁺ , Cl^- , Mg²⁺ , P^3- , K⁺ , Ca²⁺ , glucose, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, and alkaline phosphatase]) were measured from each sample on each sampling occasion. Hemocyte counts were consistently greater in Q. quadrula than in A. plicata following transfer to captivity. Baseline hemocyte morphology and hemolymph chemistry varied between species. This study provides a foundation of reference ranges for hemocyte characterization for Q. quadrula, and A. plicata and a preliminary understanding of how hemocyte character might be expected to change when wild mussels are translocated into captivity, and thus be a useful technique for monitoring the health of freshwater mussels.

Human Factors for Capacity Building. Lessons learned from the OpenMRS Implementers Network

Objectives: Theoverallobjectiveofthisprojectwastoinvestigateways to strengthen the OpenMRS community by (i) developing capacity and implementing a network focusing specifically on the needs of OpenMRS implementers,(ii) strengthening community-driven aspects of OpenMRS and providing a dedicated forum for implementation-specific issues, and; (iii) providing regional support for OpenMRS implementations as well as mentorship and training.

Methods: Themethodsusedincluded(i)face-to-facenetworkingusing meetings and workshops; (ii) online collaboration tools, peer support and mentorship programmes; (iii) capacity and community development programmes, and; (iv) community outreach programmes.

Results: Thecommunity-driven approach,combined withafewsimple interventions,has been a key factor in the growth and success of the OpenMRS ImplementersNetwork.Ithascontributed toimplementations in at least twenty-three different countries using basic online tools; and provided mentorship and peer support through an annual meeting, workshops and an internshipprogram. The OpenMRS Implementers Network has formed collaborations with several other open source networks and is evolving regional OpenMRS Centres of Excellence to provide localized support for OpenMRS development and implementation. These initiativesare increasingthe range of functionalityand sustainability of open source software in the health domain, resulting in improvedadoption and enterprise-readiness.

Conclusions: Socialorganizationandcapacitydevelopmentactivities are important in growing a successful community-driven open source softwaremodel.

Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of Salmonella enterica in Captive Wildlife and Exotic Animal Species in Ohio, USA

The purpose of this study was to investigate the occurrence, antimicrobial resistance patterns, phenotypic and genotypic relatedness of Salmonella enterica recovered from captive wildlife host species and in the environment in Ohio, USA. A total of 319 samples including faecal (n = 225), feed (n = 38) and environmental (n = 56) were collected from 32 different wild and exotic animal species in captivity and their environment in Ohio. Salmonellae were isolated using conventional culture methods and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility with the Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method. Salmonella isolates were serotyped, and genotyping was performed using the pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). Salmonella was detected in 56 of 225 (24.9%) faecal samples; six of 56 (10.7%) environmental samples and six of 38 (15.8%) feed samples. Salmonella was more commonly isolated in faecal samples from giraffes (78.2%; 36/46), cranes (75%; 3/4) and raccoons (75%; 3/4). Salmonella enterica serotypes of known public health significance including S. Typhimurium (64.3%), S. Newport (32.1%) and S. Heidelberg (5.3%) were identified. While the majority of the Salmonella isolates were pan-susceptible (88.2%; 60 of 68), multidrug-resistant strains including penta-resistant type, AmStTeKmGm (8.8%; six of 68) were detected. Genotypic diversity was found among S. Typhimurium isolates. The identification of clonally related Salmonella isolates from environment and faeces suggests that indirect transmission of Salmonella among hosts via environmental contamination is an important concern to workers, visitors and other wildlife. Results of this study show the diversity of Salmonella serovars and public health implications of human exposure from wildlife reservoirs.

Alkaline phosphatase as an indicator of true ejaculation in the rhinoceros

The objective was to determine if seminal alkaline phosphatase (ALP) can serve as an indicator of true ejaculation in the rhinoceros. Concentrations of ALP activity were determined in seminal fractions collected from African black rhinos (Diceros bicornis), an African white rhino (Ceratotherium simum), and an Indian rhino (Rhinoceros unicornis) during electroejaculation. In addition, seminal fractions collected during penile massage of a Sumatran rhino (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) were assessed. Correlations between ALP activity and sperm concentration, fraction pH, and fraction osmolality were evaluated in the Indian rhino and black rhino. Concentrations of ALP activity in rhino ejaculate fractions ranged from < 5 to 11,780 U/L and were positively correlated (P < 0.05) with sperm concentration for both Indian rhino (r = 0.995) and black rhino (r = 0.697), but did not exhibit a strong correlation with either pH or osmolality (P > 0.05). Data were insufficient for establishing meaningful correlation coefficients in the Sumatran rhino and white rhino, but preliminary results were in accordance with findings in the Indian rhino and black rhino. We concluded that ALP was present in rhinoceros semen, likely originated from the epididymides and/or testes, and could serve as a useful tool for assessing the production of ejaculatory versus pre-ejaculatory fluid in the rhinoceros.

Human factors for capacity building: lessons learned from the OpenMRS implementers network

OBJECTIVES

The overall objective of this project was to investigate ways to strengthen the OpenMRS community by (i) developing capacity and implementing a network focusing specifically on the needs of OpenMRS implementers, (ii) strengthening community-driven aspects of OpenMRS and providing a dedicated forum for implementation-specific issues, and; (iii) providing regional support for OpenMRS implementations as well as mentorship and training.

METHODS

The methods used included (i) face-to-face networking using meetings and workshops; (ii) online collaboration tools, peer support and mentorship programmes; (iii) capacity and community development programmes, and; (iv) community outreach programmes.

RESULTS

The community-driven approach, combined with a few simple interventions, has been a key factor in the growth and success of the OpenMRS Implementers Network. It has contributed to implementations in at least twenty-three different countries using basic online tools; and provided mentorship and peer support through an annual meeting, workshops and an internship program. The OpenMRS Implementers Network has formed collaborations with several other open source networks and is evolving regional OpenMRS Centres of Excellence to provide localized support for OpenMRS development and implementation. These initiatives are increasing the range of functionality and sustainability of open source software in the health domain, resulting in improved adoption and enterprise-readiness.

CONCLUSIONS

Social organization and capacity development activities are important in growing a successful community-driven open source software model.

Harlequin ichthyosis in two greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros)

Two greater kudu calves (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) born 7 years apart were found with fissures and thickened, scaly, cutaneous plates covering over 80% of their bodies. One was dead at presentation, and the other was euthanized shortly after birth. Both animals shared a common sire. On necropsy, chemosis, ectropion, eclabium, and bilateral valgus deformities of the tarsal joints were observed in one calf, presumed to be secondary to the plates restricting normal fetal development. The principal microscopic lesion was severe lamellar orthokeratosis, with focal mild parakeratosis. Ultrastructural epidermal lesions included the absence of normal lamellar granules, large dilated endoplasmic reticulum, and abnormal retention of organelles and vesicles. Gross, histopathologic, and electron microscopic findings in both kudu calves were consistent with those of harlequin ichthyosis, a rare dermatosis of humans believed to have an autosomal recessive inheritance pattern. The underlying genetic and molecular abnormality and heritability of this condition in this greater kudu herd were not determined.

Treatment of Argulus sp. infestation of river frogs

Ten river frog tadpoles (Rana hecksheri) were collected from Pointsett State Park in South Carolina in April 1995. They were housed together in a tank at the North Carolina Zoological Park. Although no skin lesions were evident at collection, skin scrapings performed 4 weeks later revealed numerous immature and adult Argulus sp. on the tails and dorsal trunks of many of the tadpoles. The adult parasites were removed manually, and the tadpoles were treated with lufenuron (15 mg/l; Program, Novartis Animal Health, Greensboro, N.C.) and sodium chloride (3 g/l) in the tank water for 3 weeks. A single immature Argulus was found on a skin scraping on day 2 of treatment, and no parasites were seen thereafter on skin scrapings obtained through day 28 after the initiation of treatment. Metamorphosis occurred in all tadpoles within 4 weeks of initiating treatment. No deleterious effects of the treatment were noted.

Fission yeast Clp1p phosphatase regulates G2/M transition and coordination of cytokinesis with cell cycle progression

BACKGROUND

In Saccharomyces cerevisiae the mitotic-exit network (MEN) functions in anaphase to promote the release of the Cdc14p phosphatase from the nucleolus. This release causes mitotic exit via inactivation of the cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk). Cdc14p-like proteins are highly conserved; however, it is unclear if these proteins regulate mitotic exit as in S. cerevisiae. In Schizosaccharomyces pombe a signaling pathway homologous to the MEN and termed the septation initiation network (SIN) is required not for mitotic exit, but for initiation of cytokinesis and for a cytokinesis checkpoint that inhibits further cell cycle progression until cytokinesis is complete.

RESULTS

We have identified the S. pombe Cdc14p homolog, Clp1p, and show that it is not required for mitotic exit but rather functions together with the SIN in coordinating cytokinesis with the nuclear-division cycle. As cells enter mitosis, Clp1p relocalizes from the nucleolus to the spindle and site of cell division. Clp1p exit from the nucleolus does not depend on the SIN, but the SIN is required for keeping Clp1p out of the nucleolus until completion of cytokinesis. Clp1p, in turn, may promote the activation of the SIN by antagonizing Cdk activity until cytokinesis is complete and thus ensuring that cytokinesis is completed prior to the initiation of the next cell cycle. In addition to its roles in anaphase, Clp1p regulates the G2/M transition since cells deleted for clp1 enter mitosis precociously and cells overexpressing Clp1p delay mitotic entry. Unlike Cdc14p, Clp1p appears to antagonize Cdk activity by preventing dephosphorylation of Cdc2p on tyrosine.

CONCLUSIONS

S. pombe Clp1p affects cell cycle progression in a markedly different manner than its S. cerevisiae homolog, Cdc14p. This finding raises the possibility that related phosphatases in animal cells will prove to have important roles in coordinating the onset of cytokinesis with the events of mitosis.

Comparing ovulation synchronization protocols for artificial insemination in the scimitar-horned oryx (Oryx dammah)

Ovarian response and pregnancy success in scimitar-horned oryx (n=28) were compared, following treatment with two synchronization protocols and fixed-time artificial insemination (AI) with frozen-thawed semen. Each oryx received two injections of 500 microg of prostaglandin-F(2alpha) analogue (PGF(2alpha)-only) 11 days apart, and half received PGF(2alpha) in combination with an intravaginal progesterone-releasing device (CIDR11+PGF(2alpha)). Semen was collected by electroejaculation from anaesthetised adult oryx and cryopreserved. Anaesthetised females were transcervically inseminated 56.0+/-1.1 h (+/-S.E.M.) after PGF(2alpha) injection and/or device withdrawal using 28.0+/-1.5x10(6) motile thawed sperm. Ovarian endocrine response was monitored in 20 females by analysing faecal oestrogen and progesterone metabolites. Periovulatory oestrogen peaks were detected in 19/20 (95%) females after synchronization. There were no between-treatment differences in oestrogen concentrations or peak characteristics (P0.05). Luteal development after synchronization was delayed in half the progesterone treated (CIDR11+PGF(2alpha)) females, and faecal progestin excretion profiles indicated that the ovulatory follicle associated with synchronization either failed to ovulate or to fully lutenise. Pregnancy was diagnosed by ultrasonography and/or rectal palpation and was monitored by faecal progestin excretion. More (P=0. 013) pregnancies resulted from the PGF(2alpha)-only treatment (37.5%, 5/14) than from the CIDR11+PGF(2alpha) treatment (0/14), and four healthy scimitar-horned oryx calves were born, three after gestation intervals of 247 days and one after 249 days.

Abdominal lipomatosis attributed to tall fescue toxicosis in deer

Five adult female Eld's deer died acutely or were euthanatized because of clinical signs including anorexia, signs of depression, and uremia. On necropsy, these deer had large masses of necrotic abdominal fat constricting the ureters, causing hydroureter and hydronephrosis. The herd from which these deer originated was maintained on pastures consisting primarily of tall fescue, samples from which were subsequently confirmed to be infected with an endophytic fungus that is known to cause similar lesions in cattle. A retrospective study of deaths in this herd revealed a sharp increase in incidence of abdominal lipomatosis since 1994. Physical examinations on the herd revealed > 90% of females to be affected. Endophyte-infected tall fescue forage was concluded to be a major factor in the development of lipomatosis in these deer. Other contributing factors were considered. Lesions caused by endophyte-infected fescue can be severe, and this disease can develop in nondomestic species.

Pharmacokinetics and ovarian-stimulatory effects of equine and human chorionic gonadotropins administered singly and in combination in the domestic cat

Pregnancy success and embryo survival are low with the use of assisted reproduction in felids treated with exogenous gonadotropins. In this study, the pharmacokinetics and ovarian-stimulatory effects of eCG and hCG were evaluated in the domestic cat. Catheterized anestrual queens (n = 4 per treatment [Trt] group) were given 100 IU eCG i.v. (Trt 1), 100 IU eCG i.m. (Trt 2), 75 IU hCG i.v. (Trt 3), 75 IU hCG i.m. (Trt 4), or 100 IU eCG i.m. followed 80 h later by 75 IU hCG i.m. (Trt 5). Blood samples were collected at 0, 5, 30, and 60 min and 4, 8, 12, 24, 36, 48, 72, 96, 120, 144, and 168 h postinjection, and serum samples were analyzed for estradiol-17beta, progesterone, eCG, and hCG. Pharmacokinetic traits (volume of distribution, Vd; elimination half-life, t1/2beta; clearance rate, Clr) were calculated for eCG and hCG. When i.v. and i.m. administration were compared, no differences (p > 0.05) were observed in follicle or corpus luteum (CL) number or hormone concentrations for queens receiving eCG or hCG alone. Number of mature ovarian follicles (> or = 2 mm diameter) observed at 168 h postinjection did not differ (p > 0.05) for eCG (mean +/- SEM, 10.5 +/- 2.0) vs. hCG (11.1 +/- 3.0), indicating that these were equally effective in inducing follicular growth. In most queens (> 90%) given single gonadotropins (i.m. or i.v.), eCG and hCG persisted in circulation for at least 120 h and 96 h after injection, respectively, reflecting similar (p > 0.05) pharmacokinetic (i.v.) values for Vd (eCG, 91.4 +/- 24.8 ml/kg; hCG, 59.1 +/- 7.9 ml/kg), t1/2beta (eCG, 23.0 +/- 2.4 h; hCG, 22.9 +/- 4.1 h), and Clr (eCG, 2.7 +/- 0.5 ml/h per kg; hCG, 1.8 +/- 0.1 ml/h per kg). Sequential treatment with eCG+hCG did not affect (p > 0.05) the t1/2beta of individual gonadotropins. In summary, eCG and hCG have comparable pharmacokinetics and ovarian-stimulatory activity when administered alone to the domestic cat. These findings suggest that hCG promotes the ancillary follicle formation that is frequently observed after ovulation in cats treated with eCG+hCG regimens, possibly disrupting the maternal environment and decreasing fecundity following assisted reproductive procedures.

Effects of equine chorionic gonadotropin, human chorionic gonadotropin, and laparoscopic artificial insemination on embryo, endocrine, and luteal characteristics in the domestic cat

The effects of gonadotropin treatment and laparoscopic artificial insemination (AI) on embryo quality, serum progesterone and estradiol concentrations, and luteal progesterone content were examined in the domestic cat. These data were compared to similar historical data reported for naturally estrual, mated queens. All queens in this study (n = 32) were treated with eCG followed by 1) natural breeding (eCG-NB), 2) NB and hCG (eCG-NB-hCG), 3) NB and a sham AI procedure (eCG-NB-sham AI), or 4) hCG and actual AI (eCG-hCG-AI). Queens ovulating in response to treatment were ovariohysterectomized, and oviducts and uteri were flushed to collect embryos. Ovarian structures were recorded, corpora lutea (CL) were excised and evaluated for progesterone content, and serum was analyzed for estradiol-17beta and progesterone. Follicle and CL numbers ranged from 0 to 28 and 2 to 42 per cat, respectively, and treatment means did not differ (p > or = 0.05) among groups. Embryos were recovered from oviducts and uterine horns in all treatment groups, and recovery ranged from 60-96%. Mean embryo number per queen ranged from 8.2 +/- 2.6 to 23.2 +/- 3.8 and did not differ (p > or = 0.05) among groups. However, the proportions of unfertilized oocytes were greater (p < 0.05) for groups treated with hCG and/or artificially inseminated, and the proportion of blastocysts produced (31 of 107, 29.0%) was lower (p < 0.05) in the eCG-hCG-AI group than for any other treatment (range, 59 of 116 [50.9%] to 67 of 116 [57.8%]). Not all queens in each group produced good-quality embryos (eCG-NB, 5 of 5; eCG-NB-hCG, 5 of 8; eCG-NB-sham AI, 2 of 5; and eCG-hCG-AI, 3 of 6). Serum progesterone and estradiol-17beta, and total luteal progesterone per ovary did not differ (p > or = 0.05) among treatments. Compared to historical controls (naturally estrual, mated queens), eCG-NB queens produced > 4 times as many good-quality embryos and blastocysts. Similarly, eCG-hCG-AI-treated queens produced > 4 times the number of oocytes and embryos, although a high proportion of these were poor quality and did not develop to blastocysts. Together, these results indicate that queens treated with eCG are capable of consistently producing many good-quality embryos, at least half of which develop to blastocysts in culture. These data support the use of eCG in felids and suggest that other factors are responsible for reduced pregnancy success and small litter sizes following assisted reproduction.

Sperm capacitation and the acrosome reaction are compromised in teratospermic domestic cats

The efficiency of sperm capacitation and of the acrosome reaction was studied in the teratospermic domestic cat to evaluate further the etiology of compromised zona pellucida penetration and oocyte fertilization. Specific objectives were to compare normospermic and teratospermic cat ejaculates for 1) the kinetics and timing of sperm capacitation in vitro as determined by an ionophore-induced acrosome reaction; 2) the incidence of spontaneous acrosomal loss; 3) the ability of capacitated, swim-up processed sperm to acrosome-react in response to chemical (calcium ionophore) or physiological (solubilized zonae pellucidae) inducers; and 4) differences in acrosomal ultrastructure by use of transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Acrosomal status was determined with the fluorescent probe Arachis hypogaea (peanut) agglutinin. The timing of in vitro capacitation differed (p < 0.05) between cat populations. Normospermic samples were capacitated at 2.0 h postcentrifugation, whereas teratospermic samples required 2.5 h to become capacitated. At 2.5 h, sperm from teratospermic males were less capable (p < 0.05) of completing the acrosome reaction after ionophore exposure (49.3 +/- 8.0%) than sperm from normospermic males (73.3 +/- 3.8%). Levels of spontaneous acrosomal loss/reaction over time were similar (p > 0.05) between cat groups (range, 7.6-17.8%). In swim-up separated sperm from normospermic cats, ionophore A23187 was a more potent inducer (p < 0.05) of the acrosome reaction (70.1 +/- 6.5%) than solubilized zonae pellucidae (31.1 +/- 1.2%). Swim-up separated sperm from teratospermic cats, however, were compromised in the ability to acrosome react, regardless of inducer (ionophore, 23.9 +/- 3.3%; solubilized zonae pellucidae, 23.9 +/- 4.7%; p > 0.05). Sperm motility patterns over time indicated that differences in acrosomal status were not influenced by cell death. The frequency of abnormal acrosomes detected by TEM was higher (p < 0.05) in teratospermic (30.0 +/- 3.9%) than in normospermic (3.1 +/- 1.3%) samples. Swim-up separation failed to reduce (p > 0.05) the proportion of sperm cells with malformed acrosomes (swim-up, 33.5 +/- 3.5%; washed, 26.6 +/- 4.6%). These results indicate that sperm from teratospermic cats exhibit a high incidence of malformed acrosomes detectable only at the ultrastructural level. Nevertheless, acrosomal dysfunction is not related exclusively to structural defects because > 40.0% of swim-up separated sperm with structurally normal acrosomes still are incapable of completing the acrosome reaction. This suggests that compromised capacitation and acrosomal dysfunction may be responsible for low fertilization success in the teratospermic domestic cat.

Development to blastocysts of domestic cat oocytes matured and fertilized in vitro after prolonged cold storage

Four experiments determined the kinetics of in vitro maturation and fertilization of cat oocytes and the effects of prolonged cold storage of ovaries before oocyte recovery on in vitro maturation/in vitro fertilization (IVM/IVF) success. Domestic cat ovaries were collected at ovariohysterectomy and stored at 4 degrees C in PBS until oocyte recovery and culture in Eagle's minimal essential medium (EMEM) containing FSH, LH, oestradiol and BSA for maturation. In Expt 1, meiotic maturation was assessed at 0, 12, 24, 38 and 48 h of culture. After 24 h, > 61% of oocytes were in telophase I or metaphase II. In Expt 2, oocytes were recovered from ovaries stored for 24, 48 or 72 h and cultured in EMEM for 24 h. There was no difference among groups (P > 0.05) in the ability to achieve nuclear maturation (mean +/- SEM, 57.1 +/- 5.3%, 60.4 +/- 5.4%, 55.4 +/- 15.1% for 24, 48 and 72 h, respectively). Fertilization and embryo development after insemination at 16, 24, 32, 40 and 48 h of culture were examined in Expt 3. Of 98 oocytes inseminated at 32 h, 69% cleaved, 59% developed into morulae and 13% into blastocysts, more (P < 0.05) than those oocytes inseminated at earlier and later times. Development to blastocysts occurred after insemination at 16 (1.2%), 24 (9.1%) and 32 (13.3%) h of culture, but not after insemination at 40 or 48 h. Expt 4 involved cold storage of ovaries for 24, 48 or 72 h before oocyte recovery and insemination at 32 h of culture (the optimal time measured in Expt 3). Compared with storage for 24 h, fertilization success was lower (P < 0.05) in the 48 and 72 h groups, and, although 9.1% of inseminated oocytes from the 24 h storage group developed to blastocysts, none (P < 0.05) achieved this stage after 48 or 72 h of storage. These results indicate that domestic cat oocytes reach nuclear maturity by 24 h in culture and can be fertilized and develop to blastocysts optimally after insemination at 32 h. Oocytes recovered from ovaries stored at 4 degrees C for up to 72 h are capable of reaching telophase I or metaphase II in vitro. However, only oocytes stored within the ovary for 24 h produce blastocysts, indicating that the ability to achieve nuclear maturation is an inadequate indicator of fertilization and developmental competence.

Reproductive anatomy, manipulation of ovarian activity and non-surgical embryo recovery in suni (Neotragus moschatus zuluensis)

Marked disparity in the uterine horn dimensions and relative degrees of caruncle development in suni suggested that exclusive or predominant dextral implantation occurs in association with bilateral ovulatory activity. Daily urinary measurements of pregnanediol-3 alpha-glucuronide revealed an oestrous cycle of approximately 21 days in length. Ovarian activity was controlled for synchronization of oestrus by using progestagen-impregnated intravaginal sponges and multiple ovulations were induced by using exogenous gonadotrophin therapy. An effective transcervical uterine catheterization technique was developed for the non-surgical collection of embryos. The efficiency of embryo recovery performed 5 days after sponge removal was 50.0%.