Association of clinical factors and recent anticancer therapy with COVID-19 severity among patients with cancer: a report from the COVID-19 and Cancer Consortium

BACKGROUND

Patients with cancer may be at high risk of adverse outcomes from severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection. We analyzed a cohort of patients with cancer and coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) reported to the COVID-19 and Cancer Consortium (CCC19) to identify prognostic clinical factors, including laboratory measurements and anticancer therapies.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Patients with active or historical cancer and a laboratory-confirmed SARS-CoV-2 diagnosis recorded between 17 March and 18 November 2020 were included. The primary outcome was COVID-19 severity measured on an ordinal scale (uncomplicated, hospitalized, admitted to intensive care unit, mechanically ventilated, died within 30 days). Multivariable regression models included demographics, cancer status, anticancer therapy and timing, COVID-19-directed therapies, and laboratory measurements (among hospitalized patients).

RESULTS

A total of 4966 patients were included (median age 66 years, 51% female, 50% non-Hispanic white); 2872 (58%) were hospitalized and 695 (14%) died; 61% had cancer that was present, diagnosed, or treated within the year prior to COVID-19 diagnosis. Older age, male sex, obesity, cardiovascular and pulmonary comorbidities, renal disease, diabetes mellitus, non-Hispanic black race, Hispanic ethnicity, worse Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group performance status, recent cytotoxic chemotherapy, and hematologic malignancy were associated with higher COVID-19 severity. Among hospitalized patients, low or high absolute lymphocyte count; high absolute neutrophil count; low platelet count; abnormal creatinine; troponin; lactate dehydrogenase; and C-reactive protein were associated with higher COVID-19 severity. Patients diagnosed early in the COVID-19 pandemic (January-April 2020) had worse outcomes than those diagnosed later. Specific anticancer therapies (e.g. R-CHOP, platinum combined with etoposide, and DNA methyltransferase inhibitors) were associated with high 30-day all-cause mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Clinical factors (e.g. older age, hematological malignancy, recent chemotherapy) and laboratory measurements were associated with poor outcomes among patients with cancer and COVID-19. Although further studies are needed, caution may be required in utilizing particular anticancer therapies.

CLINICAL TRIAL IDENTIFIER

NCT04354701.

Repetitive task training for improving functional ability after stroke

BACKGROUND

The active practice of task-specific motor activities is a component of current approaches to stroke rehabilitation.

OBJECTIVES

To determine if repetitive task training after stroke improves global, upper or lower limb function, and if treatment effects are dependent on the amount, type or timing of practice.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Stroke Trials Register (October 2006), The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, AMED, SportDiscus, Science Citation Index, Index to Theses, ZETOC, PEDro, and OT Seeker (to September 2006), and OT search (to March 2006). We also searched for unpublished/non-English language trials, conference proceedings, combed reference lists, requested information on bulletin boards, and contacted trial authors.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised/quasi-randomised trials in adults after stroke, where the intervention was an active motor sequence performed repetitively within a single training session, aimed towards a clear functional goal, and where the amount of practice could be quantified.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two authors independently screened abstracts, extracted data and appraised trials. Assessment of methodological quality was undertaken for allocation concealment, blinding, loss to follow up and equivalence of treatment. We contacted trial authors for additional information.

MAIN RESULTS

Fourteen trials with 17 intervention-control pairs and 659 participants were included.

PRIMARY OUTCOMES

results were statistically significant for walking distance (mean difference (MD) 54.6, 95% CI 17.5 to 91.7); walking speed (standardised mean difference (SMD) 0.29, 95% CI 0.04 to 0.53); sit-to-stand (standard effect estimate 0.35, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.56); and of borderline statistical significance for functional ambulation (SMD 0.25, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.51), and global motor function (SMD 0.32, 95% CI -0.01 to 0.66). There were no statistically significant differences for hand/arm function, or sitting balance/reach.

SECONDARY OUTCOMES

results were statistically significant for activities of daily living (SMD 0.29, 95% CI 0.07 to 0.51), but not for quality of life or impairment measures. There was no evidence of adverse effects. Follow-up measures were not significant for any outcome at six or twelve months. Treatment effects were not modified by intervention amount or timing, but were modified by intervention type for lower limbs.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Repetitive task training resulted in modest improvement in lower limb function, but not upper limb function. Training may be sufficient to impact on daily living function. However, there is no evidence that improvements are sustained once training has ended. The review potentially investigates task specificity rather more than repetition. Further research should focus on the type and amount of training, and how to maintain functional gain.

Pain management knowledge, attitudes and clinical practice: the impact of nurses' characteristics and education

This study examined the knowledge, attitudes, and clinical practice of registered nurses (N = 120) regarding pain management. Data were collected from nine varied clinical units in a large, university-affiliated, teaching hospital in an urban area of the Northeast. Demographic information was also collected to explore the relationship between nurses' characteristics, including previous pain education, clinical experience, area of clinical practice, and other variables, and knowledge, attitudes, and clinical practice. Three instruments were used in the study: (a) the Pain Management: Nurses' Knowledge and Attitude Survey; (b) a 12-item demographic questionnaire; and (c) a Pain Audit Tool (PAT) to gather data regarding pain assessment, documentation, and treatment practices from charts. Mean scores from the nursing knowledge and attitudes survey on pain revealed knowledge deficits and inconsistent responses in many areas related to pain management (mean, 62%; range, 41%-90%). The top two nurse-ranked barriers to pain management were related to patient reluctance to report pain and to take opioids for pain relief. Demographic data revealed that education about pain was most inadequate in the following areas: nonpharmacological interventions to relieve pain, the difference between acute and chronic pain, and the anatomy and physiology of pain. Chart audits with the Pain Audit Tool revealed that 76% of the charts (N = 82) lacked documentation of the use of a patient self-rating tool by nurses to assess pain, despite a high reported use (76%) of such a self-rating tool. Adjunct medications were ordered with some consistency, but appeared to be underutilized. This was especially true of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents (mean use, 1%). Ninety percent of the charts had no documentation of the use of nonpharmacological interventions to relieve pain. Although this clinical setting has policies and resources in place regarding the management of pain, it would appear that they are not optimal. Practical recommendations are presented for increasing nurses' knowledge about pain management; improving the quality and the consistency of the assessment, documentation and treatment of pain; and disseminating pain management information.

The effects of weathering and chemical dispersion on Deepwater Horizon crude oil toxicity to mahi-mahi (Coryphaena hippurus) early life stages

To better understand the impact of the Deepwater Horizon (DWH) incident on commercially and ecologically important pelagic fish species, a mahi-mahi spawning program was developed to assess the effect of embryonic exposure to DWH crude oil with particular emphasis on the effects of weathering and dispersant on the magnitude of toxicity. Acute lethality (96 h LC50) ranged from 45.8 (28.4-63.1) μg l(-1) ΣPAH for wellhead (source) oil to 8.8 (7.4-10.3) μg l(-1) ΣPAH for samples collected from the surface slick, reinforcing previous work that weathered oil is more toxic on a ΣPAH basis. Differences in toxicity appear related to the amount of dissolved 3 ringed PAHs. The dispersant Corexit 9500 did not influence acute lethality of oil preparations. Embryonic oil exposure resulted in cardiotoxicity after 48 h, as evident from pericardial edema and reduced atrial contractility. Whereas pericardial edema appeared to correlate well with acute lethality at 96 h, atrial contractility did not. However, sub-lethal cardiotoxicity may impact long-term performance and survival. Dispersant did not affect the occurrence of pericardial edema; however, there was an apparent reduction in atrial contractility at 48 h of exposure. Pericardial edema at 48 h and lethality at 96 h were equally sensitive endpoints in mahi-mahi.

Corresponding morphological and molecular indicators of crude oil toxicity to the developing hearts of mahi mahi

Crude oils from distinct geological sources worldwide are toxic to developing fish hearts. When oil spills occur in fish spawning habitats, natural resource injury assessments often rely on conventional morphometric analyses of heart form and function. The extent to which visible indicators correspond to molecular markers for cardiovascular stress is unknown for pelagic predators from the Gulf of Mexico. Here we exposed mahi (Coryphaena hippurus) embryos to field-collected crude oil samples from the 2010 Deepwater Horizon disaster. We compared visible heart defects (edema, abnormal looping, reduced contractility) to changes in expression of cardiac-specific genes that are diagnostic of heart failure in humans or associated with loss-of-function zebrafish cardiac mutants. Mahi exposed to crude oil during embryogenesis displayed typical symptoms of cardiogenic syndrome as larvae. Contractility, looping, and circulatory defects were evident, but larval mahi did not exhibit downstream craniofacial and body axis abnormalities. A gradation of oil exposures yielded concentration-responsive changes in morphometric and molecular responses, with relative sensitivity being influenced by age. Our findings suggest that 1) morphometric analyses of cardiac function are more sensitive to proximal effects of crude oil-derived chemicals on the developing heart, and 2) molecular indicators reveal a longer-term adverse shift in cardiogenesis trajectory.

Molecular epizootiology of genotoxic events in marine fish: linking contaminant exposure, DNA damage, and tissue-level alterations

Molecular epizootiological studies are increasingly being used to investigate environmental effects of genotoxic contaminants. The assessment of damage to DNA and linking the damage to subsequent molecular, cellular, or tissue-level alterations is a central component of such studies. Our research has focused on the refinement of the 32P-postlabeling assay for measuring covalent DNA-xenobiotic adducts arising from exposure to polycyclic aromatic compounds, using DNA adducts as molecular dosimeters of genotoxic contaminant exposure in biomonitoring studies, and investigating the relationship of DNA adduct formation to toxicopathic liver disease, including neoplastic lesions. A combination of field and laboratory studies using the 32P-postlabeling assay has shown that DNA adducts in marine fish are effective molecular dosimeters of genotoxic contaminant exposure. Investigations of the relationship of DNA adduct formation to neoplastic liver disease have shown that elevated levels of DNA adducts in certain fish species from contaminated coastal sites are associated with increased prevalences of toxicopathic hepatic lesions, including neoplasms, and that the ability to assess DNA damage has helped to explain, in part, species differences in lesion prevalence. Moreover, in a study of a site in Puget Sound contaminated with polycyclic aromatic compounds, we have shown, for the first time, that elevated levels of hepatic DNA adducts are a significant risk factor for certain degenerative and preneoplastic lesions occurring early in the histogenesis of hepatic neoplasms in feral English sole (Pleuronectes vetulus). These latter findings coupled with our current studies of mutational events in the K-ras proto-oncogene should provide further mechanistic substantiation that mutagenic events resulting from exposure to complex mixtures of genotoxic polycyclic aromatic compounds are involved in the etiology of hepatic neoplasia in English sole.

Storage phosphor imaging technique for detection and quantitation of DNA adducts measured by the 32P-postlabeling assay

The 32P-postlabeling method has found wide application as a sensitive technique for detecting the presence of a broad range of bulky aromatic compounds covalently bound to DNA. In this method, the modified DNA is enzymatically degraded to 3'-mononucleotides and labeled with [32P]-phosphate at the 5'-position using [gamma-32P]ATP and T4 polynucleotide kinase. The 32P-labeled DNA digest is then chromatographed in two dimensions on polyethyleneimine - cellulose thin-layer plates. Screen-enhanced autoradiography is used to locate the presence of the radiolabeled adducts on the chromatogram, and the radioactive areas are generally excised and quantitated by liquid scintillation spectrometry. However, on a chromatogram with multiple adducts, it can be difficult to quantitative partially resolved adducts and evaluated background radioactivity levels. We have evaluated the use of storage phosphor imaging techniques to quantitate and map the radioactivity on chromatograms generated by the 32P-postlabeling method. The results showed that storage phosphor imaging was approximately 10 times more sensitive than screen-enhanced autoradiography at -80 degrees C for the detection of 32P, exhibits a greater linear range of response, has a resolution that compares favorably to film and has a lower background than does liquid scintillation spectrometry. Further, the generation of a digitized record of the distribution and intensity of radioactivity allows for computer-assisted assessment of adduct profiles and can facilitate quantitation of individual adducts and radioactive zones comprised of multiple overlapping adducts in complex chromatograms. Additionally, the permanent record created by the imaging technology permits facile retrospective analysis of samples, whereas with autoradiography and liquid scintillation spectrometry reanalysis of a replicate sample is required.

Calcineurin Inhibitor Minimization, Conversion, Withdrawal, and Avoidance Strategies in Renal Transplantation: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Despite their clinical efficacy, concerns about calcineurin inhibitor (CNI) toxicity make alternative regimens that reduce CNI exposure attractive for renal transplant recipients. In this systematic review and meta-analysis, we assessed four CNI immunosuppression strategies (minimization, conversion, withdrawal, and avoidance) designed to reduce CNI exposure and assessed the impact of each on patient and allograft survival, acute rejection and renal function. We evaluated 92 comparisons from 88 randomized controlled trials and found moderate- to high-strength evidence suggesting that minimization strategies result in better clinical outcomes compared with standard-dose regimens; moderate-strength evidence indicating that conversion to a mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor or belatacept was associated with improved renal function but increased rejection risk; and moderate- to high-strength evidence suggesting planned CNI withdrawal could result in improved renal function despite an association with increased rejection risk. The evidence base for avoidance studies was insufficient to draw meaningful conclusions. The applicability of the review is limited by the large number of studies examining cyclosporine-based strategies and low-risk populations. Additional research is needed with tacrolimus-based regimens and higher risk populations. Moreover, research is necessary to clarify the effect of induction and adjunctive agents in alternative immunosuppression strategies and should include more comprehensive and consistent reporting of patient-centered outcomes.

32P-postlabeling analysis of DNA adduct formation and persistence in English sole (Pleuronectes vetulus) exposed to benzo[a]pyrene and 7H-dibenzo[c,g]carbazole

The formation and persistence of benzo[a]pyrene (BaP)- and 7H-dibenzo[c,g]-carbazole (DBC)-DNA adducts in liver of English sole (Pleuronectes vetulus) were investigated. BaP is a putative hepatocarcinogen in English sole based on its ability to induce formation of preneoplastic foci, while DBC is a hepatocarcinogen in mammals but whose carcinogenicity in fish is not known. English sole liver was sampled from 2 h through 84 days after a single intermuscular injection of a BaP and DBC mixture (100 mumol of each/kg body wt.), and DNA adduct levels were measured by the nuclease P1 version of the 32P-postlabeling assay. The major BaP adducts detected were from binding of BaP-7,8-diol-9,10-epoxide to DNA, whereas multiple uncharacterized DBC-DNA adducts were detected. Total adduct levels for both BaP and DBC reached a maximum at 2 days post exposure. The levels of DBC-DNA adducts were greater than the levels of BaP adducts at all time points and increased more rapidly than did the levels of BaP-DNA adducts. The DBC to BaP adduct ratio was 33 +/- 8.8 at 2 h and declined to 4.2 +/- 0.48 by 12 h post exposure. From 2 to 28 days, the levels of both BaP and DBC adducts declined with apparent half-lives of 11 and 13 days, respectively. There was no apparent decline from 28 to 84 days in the levels of the remaining BaP or DBC adducts; these persistent adducts represented 32 and 36% of maximum levels, respectively. These results provide the first data on the kinetics of adduct formation and removal of a carcinogenic nitrogen-containing polycyclic aromatic compound in fish. The results showing greater binding and similar persistence of DBC-DNA adducts compared to BaP-DNA adducts suggest that DBC may be hepatotoxic and potentially carcinogenic in English sole. In a separate experiment, the effect of multiple doses of BaP (30 mumol/kg body wt.) on the levels of hepatic BaP-DNA adducts showed that adduct levels increased linearly (r = 0.815, P = 0.0007) with 5 successive doses administered at 2 day-intervals and sampled 2 days after the last dose. The persistence of both BaP-DNA and DBC-DNA adducts in liver, together with the increase in BaP-DNA adducts in English sole exposed to successive doses of BaP, suggest that hepatic xenobiotic-DNA adducts in English sole are molecular dosimeters of relatively longterm environmental exposure to genotoxic polycyclic aromatic compounds.

Barriers and facilitators to understanding of ADHD in primary care: a mixed-method systematic review

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a developmental disorder affecting up to 5% of children and adults and is underdiagnosed in many European countries. The process of access to care for this disorder is complex and variable across countries. In general, those affected, or their caregiver, will seek help through their primary care practitioners who are then often responsible for referral to other professionals for diagnosis and provision of treatment. Previous studies have highlighted that many barriers to recognition exist in primary care settings (such as misconceptions, lack of education or lack of resources), preventing access to care for this population and potentially affecting diagnosis rate. This systematic review aims to establish the barriers and facilitators with regard to attitudes, beliefs and experiences of ADHD within primary care. Electronic searches of multiple databases identified 3898 articles of which 48 met our inclusion criteria-primary care professionals from any country, understanding, knowledge, awareness, attitude and recognition of ADHD. Four main themes were identified: (1) need for education, (2) misconceptions and stigma, (3) constraints with recognition, management and treatment, and (4) multidisciplinary approach. The findings suggest many interacting factors are at play in the recognition of ADHD by primary care practitioners with a strong recurring theme of a significant need for better education on ADHD. Implications for research and practice are discussed, suggesting that educational interventions for primary care practitioners could improve the recognition of ADHD in this setting.

Increasing the Number of Organ Transplants in the United States by Optimizing Donor Authorization Rates

While recent policies have focused on allocating organs to patients most in need and lessening geographic disparities, the only mechanism to increase the actual number of transplants is to maximize the potential organ supply. We conducted a retrospective cohort study using OPTN data on all "eligible deaths" from 1/1/08 to 11/1/13 to evaluate variability in donor service area (DSA)-level donor authorization rates, and to quantify the potential gains associated with increasing authorization rates. Despite adjustments for donor demographics (age, race/ethnicity, cause of death) and geographic factors (rural/urban status of donor hospital, statewide participation in deceased-donor registries) among 52 571 eligible deaths, there was significant variability (p < 0.001) in donor authorization rates across the 58 DSAs. Overall DSA-level adjusted authorization rates ranged from 63.5% to 89.5% (median: 72.7%). An additional 773-1623 eligible deaths could have been authorized, yielding 2679-5710 total organs, if the DSAs with authorization rates below the median and 75th percentile, respectively, implemented interventions to perform at the level of the corresponding reference DSA. Opportunities exist within the current organ acquisition framework to markedly improve DSA-level donor authorization rates. Such initiatives would mitigate waitlist mortality while increasing the number of transplants.

The liver is populated by a broad spectrum of markers for macrophages. In alcoholic hepatitis the macrophages are M1 and M2

Background

Liver cell injury in alcoholic hepatitis (AH) is in part, due to macrophage generated proinflammatory cytokines i.e., M1, M2a, M2b, and M2c might be involved in ALD. The T cell response to chemokines and cytokines differs not only when M1 and M2 macrophages are compared but even when individual M2 subtypes are profiled.

Purpose

In AH, M1 monocytes in the blood show increased sensitivity in the TNF-α response to LPS. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) studies showed that the liver sinusoids in ALD are abundantly populated by CD163 expressing type 2 macrophages. In this report, we profile many of the molecules associated with M1 and M2 macrophages in livers with AH using IHC.

Methods

Using immunofluorescent antibody-labeling, we profiled the receptors, cytokines and chemokines observed in M1, M2a, M2b, and M2c macrophages in liver biopsies from patients with AH.

Results

The increased CD 163 expression found in previous studies was confirmed as well an additional macrophage phenotypic marker CD206, suggesting that AH pathogenesis at least partially involves M2a and M2c macrophages. TGF-β was found to be robustly over expressed by liver sinusoidal macrophages. Macrophage expression of the phenotypic markers TLR-2, TLR-4 and TLR-8 – found in both M1 and M2 macrophages – as well as the chemokines CCL-1 and CCL-18 was found. However, IRF-4, which is related to IL-4 production and M2a polarization as well as the cytokines CCL-1 and Il-1β and the chemokine CXCL-1 were also observed, suggesting that M2a and M2b also play a role in AH pathogenesis.

Conclusion

Livers with AH show robust macrophage over expression of TGF-β, a growth factor more commonly associated with M2 type macrophages and mostly known for its fibrogenetic properties. However, our immunoprofiling of macrophage over expression also shows that AH is driven by receptors, interferons, and cytokines that are commonly associated not just with M2 macrophages, but with M1 as well. Thus, a complex interplay between different types of macrophages expressing a diverse array of molecules and receptors is involved in AH.

Treatment of urinary incontinence after stroke in adults

BACKGROUND

Urinary incontinence can affect 40-60% of people admitted to hospital after a stroke, with 25% still having problems on hospital discharge and 15% remaining incontinent at one year.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the optimal methods for treatment of urinary incontinence after stroke in adults.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Incontinence and Stroke Groups specialised registers (searched 15 March 2007 and 5 March 2007 respectively), CINAHL (January 1982 to January 2007), national and international trial databases for unpublished data, and the reference lists of relevant articles.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials evaluating the effects of interventions designed to promote continence in people after stroke.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data extraction and quality assessment were undertaken by two reviewers working independently. Disagreements were resolved by a third reviewer.

MAIN RESULTS

Twelve trials with a total of 724 participants were included in the review. Participants were from a mixture of settings, age groups and phases of stroke recovery. BEHAVIOURAL INTERVENTIONS: Three trials assessed behavioural interventions, such as timed voiding and pelvic floor muscle training. All had small sample sizes and confidence intervals were wide. SPECIALISED PROFESSIONAL INPUT INTERVENTIONS: Two trials assessed variants of professional input interventions. Results tended to favour the intervention groups: in a small trial in early rehabilitation, fewer people had incontinence at discharge from hospital after structured assessment and management than in a control group (1/21 vs. 10/13; RR 0.06, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.43); in the second trial, assessment and management by Continence Nurse Advisors was associated with fewer participants having urinary symptoms (48/89 vs. 38/54; RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.59 to 0.99) and statistically significantly more being satisfied with care. COMPLEMENTARY THERAPY INTERVENTIONS: Three small trials all reported fewer participants with incontinence after acupuncture therapy (overall RR 0.44; 95% 0.23 to 0.86), but there were particular concerns about study quality. PHARMACOTHERAPY AND HORMONAL INTERVENTIONS: There were three small trials that included groups allocated meclofenoxate, oxybutinin or oestrogen. There were no apparent differences other than in the trial of meclofenoxate where fewer participants had urinary symptoms in the active group than in the control group (9/40 vs. 27/40; RR 0.33, 95% CI 0.18 to 0.62).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Data from the available trials are insufficient to guide continence care of adults after stroke. However, there was suggestive evidence that professional input through structured assessment and management of care and specialist continence nursing may reduce urinary incontinence and related symptoms after stroke. Better quality evidence is required of the range of interventions that have been suggested for continence care after stroke.

Waitlist survival of patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis in the model for end-stage liver disease era

The ability of the Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) score to capture the urgency of transplantation may not be generalizable to patients with primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC) because these patients face unique risks of death or removal from the liver transplant waitlist due to disease-specific complications (eg, repeated bouts of bacterial cholangitis and cholangiocarcinoma). We constructed Cox regression models to determine whether disease-based differences exist in waitlist mortality before liver transplantation. We compared the times to death or withdrawal from the waitlist due to clinical deterioration among patients with or without PSC in the United States after the implementation of the MELD allocation score. Over an 8-year period, 14,073 non-PSC patients (20.5%) and 432 PSC patients (13.6%) died or were removed (P < 0.0001). The adjusted hazard ratio (HR) for PSC was 0.72 [95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.66-0.79], which indicated that these patients had a lower time-dependent risk of death or removal from the waitlist in comparison with patients without PSC. This difference was explained in part by the groups' different probabilities of portal hypertension complications at listing because adjustments for these intermediate endpoints moved the HR closer to the null (0.84, 95% CI = 0.74-0.97). In comparison with patients with other forms of end-stage liver disease, patients with PSC are less likely to die or be removed from the waitlist because of clinical deterioration; therefore, the prevailing practice in some centers and regions of preemptively referring PSC patients for living donor transplantation or exception points should be reconsidered.

Use of Population-based Data to Demonstrate How Waitlist-based Metrics Overestimate Geographic Disparities in Access to Liver Transplant Care

Liver allocation policies are evaluated by how they impact waitlisted patients, without considering broader outcomes for all patients with end-stage liver disease (ESLD) not on the waitlist. We conducted a retrospective cohort study using two nationally representative databases: HealthCore (2006-2014) and five-state Medicaid (California, Florida, New York, Ohio and Pennsylvania; 2002-2009). United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS) linkages enabled ascertainment of waitlist- and transplant-related outcomes. We included patients aged 18-75 with ESLD (decompensated cirrhosis or hepatocellular carcinoma) using validated International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Revision (ICD-9)-based algorithms. Among 16 824 ESLD HealthCore patients, 3-year incidences of waitlisting and transplantation were 15.8% (95% confidence interval [CI] : 15.0-16.6%) and 8.1% (7.5-8.8%), respectively. Among 67 706 ESLD Medicaid patients, 3-year incidences of waitlisting and transplantation were 10.0% (9.7-10.4%) and 6.7% (6.5-7.0%), respectively. In HealthCore, the absolute ranges in states' waitlist mortality and transplant rates were larger than corresponding ranges among all ESLD patients (waitlist mortality: 13.6-38.5%, ESLD 3-year mortality: 48.9-62.0%; waitlist transplant rates: 36.3-72.7%, ESLD transplant rates: 4.8-13.4%). States' waitlist mortality and ESLD population mortality were not positively correlated: ρ = -0.06, p-value = 0.83 (HealthCore); ρ = -0.87, p-value = 0.05 (Medicaid). Waitlist and ESLD transplant rates were weakly positively correlated in Medicaid (ρ = 0.36, p-value = 0.55) but were positively correlated in HealthCore (ρ = 0.73, p-value = 0.001). Compared to population-based metrics, waitlist-based metrics overestimate geographic disparities in access to liver transplantation.

Liver hypoxia and lack of recovery after reperfusion at high blood alcohol levels in the intragastric feeding model of alcohol liver disease

The purpose of this study was to test for the presence of liver hypoxia and recovery after reperfusion when blood alcohol levels (BAL) are high. Male rats were fed ethanol intragastrically at a constant rate for 1 month. The pO(2) levels were then measured on the liver surface of these rats, in vivo during laparatomy under isoflurane anesthesia. To measure the response to acute hypoxia, the hepatic blood flow was clamped off at the porta hepatis. When the clamp was released, recovery from hypoxia was measured. A number of hypoxic-inducible genes in the liver were analyzed by means of quantitative RT-PCR as a measure of increased activation of hypoxia initiated transcription. The mRNA levels of genes for adrenomedullin, adrenergic receptor alpha, 1a and 1d, CDK inhibitor 1a, and erythropoietin were all significantly higher at the peaks than troughs. Expression of these same genes in the livers of control rats fed dextrose was lower than at the troughs. Although the mRNA level of the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1alpha) was higher at the trough than at the peak, its protein concentration in the nuclear fraction was not increased at the troughs compared with the peaks. In fact, the nuclear protein level of HIF-1alpha at the peak was significantly higher than in control samples, which is consistent with the presence of hypoxia at the peaks. Further analysis of the HIF-alpha degradation regulation revealed that prolyl 4-hydroxylase (P4ha1) and von Hippel-Lindau syndrome homolog (Vhl) were both up-regulated at the troughs compared with the peaks. The liver surface oxygen levels at the peaks were reduced compared with the control samples. The pO(2) levels fell abruptly when the vessels at the porta hepatis were clamped. When the clamp was removed, allowing reperfusion of the liver, pO(2) returned to baseline levels in the control, and at the troughs but not at the peaks. These results support the hypothesis that hypoxia occurs at the peaks of the BAL cycle and recovery from ischemia is impaired at the peaks.

Regulation of peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha-mediated pathways in alcohol fed cytochrome P450 2E1 deficient mice

Fatty acids are substrates and inducers for cytochrome P450 2E1 (CYP2E1) and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha). Previously, we have shown that the ethanol-induced CYP2E1 expression in rat is accompanied by the inhibition of the expression of the PPARalpha gene and the reduction in polyunsaturated fatty acid content. To further analyze the effect of CYP2E1 and ethanol in PPARalpha-mediated fatty acid homeostasis, the expression of PPARalpha and retinoid x receptor alpha (RXRalpha) and their target genes was examined in ethanol fed CYP2E1 deficient mice. Our data demonstrated that the expression of PPARalpha and RXRalpha genes was activated in the livers of CYP2E1-null mice suggesting a compensatory effect for the absence of CYP2El. In addition, the expression of PPARalpha target genes, which included the liver fatty acid-binding protein, malic enzyme, and CYP4A1 genes, was induced indicating the activation of PPARalpha-mediated pathways in CYP2E1 deficient mice. Ethanol inhibited the expression of some of the PPARalpha target genes in wild-type mouse livers, and the inhibitory effect of ethanol was particularly prominent in the CYP2E1-null mice. Morphologically, centrilobular fat accumulation was detected in the ethanol fed CYP2E1-null mouse livers suggesting that inhibition of PPARalpha-mediated pathways might be responsible for the ethanol-induced fatty liver in CYP2El-null mice. In addition, the expression of CYP2E1 was not changed in the PPARalpha-null mice. These data suggest that CYP2E1 and ethanol can regulate PPARalpha-mediated fatty acid homeostasis. CYP2E1-induced lipid peroxidation might play a major role in lipid metabolism, PPARalpha only becomes important when the CYP2E1 level is low and polyunsaturated fatty acids increase.

Improved flatfish health following remediation of a PAH-contaminated site in Eagle Harbor, Washington

Eagle Harbor in Puget Sound, WA became a Superfund site in 1987 due to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) released chronically from a nearby creosoting facility. Early studies here (1983-1986) demonstrated up to an approximately 80% prevalence of toxicopathic liver lesions, including neoplasms, in resident English sole (Parophrys vetulus). These lesions in English sole are consistently associated with PAH exposure in multiple field studies, and one laboratory study. Later studies (1986-1988) incorporated biomarkers of PAH exposure and effect, including hepatic CYP1A expression and xenobiotic-DNA adducts, and biliary fluorescent aromatic compounds (FACs). Before site remediation, lesion prevalences and other biomarker values in this species from Eagle Harbor were among the highest compared to other sites in Puget Sound and the US Pacific Coast. To sequester PAH-contaminated sediments, in 1993-1994, a primary cap of clean sediment was placed over the most-contaminated 54acres, with a 15-acre secondary cap added from 2000-2002. Lesion prevalences and biomarker values before primary capping were reduced compared to 1983-1986, consistent with facility closure in 1988 and shore-based source controls begun in 1990. Liver lesion risk, hepatic CYP1A activities, and levels of biliary FACs from fish collected immediately after and at regular intervals up to 2 years after primary capping were variable relative to pre-capping. Over the entire monitoring period since primary capping (128 months), but particularly after 3 years, there was a significantly decreasing trend in biliary FACs, hepatic DNA adducts and lesion risk in English sole. In particular, lesion risk has been consistently low (<0.20) compared to primary cap initiation (set at 1.0), from approximately 4 years after primary capping through April 2004. These results show that the sediment capping process has been effective in reducing PAH exposure and associated deleterious biological effects in a resident flatfish, and that longer term monitoring of pollutant responses in biological resources, such as resident fish, is needed in order to demonstrate the efficacy of this type of remediation.

Embryonic Crude Oil Exposure Impairs Growth and Lipid Allocation in a Keystone Arctic Forage Fish

As Arctic ice recedes, future oil spills pose increasing risk to keystone species and the ecosystems they support. We show that Polar cod (Boreogadus saida), an energy-rich forage fish for marine mammals, seabirds, and other fish, are highly sensitive to developmental impacts of crude oil. Transient oil exposures ≥300 μg/L during mid-organogenesis disrupted the normal patterning of the jaw as well as the formation and function of the heart, in a manner expected to be lethal to post-hatch larvae. More importantly, we found that exposure to lower levels of oil caused a dysregulation of lipid metabolism and growth that persisted in morphologically normal juveniles. As lipid content is critical for overwinter survival and recruitment, we anticipate Polar cod losses following Arctic oil spills as a consequence of both near-term and delayed mortality. These losses will likely influence energy flow within Arctic food webs in ways that are as-yet poorly understood.

•

Polar cod eggs are buoyant and accumulate crude oil droplets on the chorion

•

Crude oil disrupts embryonic cardiac function and larval lipid metabolism

•

Juvenile growth and lipid content are reduced following brief embryonic oil exposure

•

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are toxic to cod in parts per trillion concentrations

Epigenetic mechanisms regulate Mallory Denk body formation in the livers of drug-primed mice

The mechanism of Mallory Denk body formation is still not fully understood, but growing evidence implicates epigenetic mechanisms in MDB formation. In a previous study the epigenetic memory of MDB formation remained intact for at least 4 months after withdrawal from the DDC diet. In the present study, mice were fed a diet containing DDC or a diet containing DDC and S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe) to investigate the epigenetic memory of MDB formation. DDC feeding caused an increase in histone 3 acetylation, a decrease in histone 3 trimethylation, and an increase in histone ubiquitinylation. The addition of SAMe to the DDC diet prevented the DDC induced decrease of H3K4 and H3K9 trimethylation and the increase in histone ubiquitinylation. Changes in histone modifying enzymes (HATs and HDACs), were also found in the liver nuclear extracts of the DDC/SAMe fed mice. Data mining of microarray analysis confirmed that gene expression changed with DDC refeeding, particularly the SAMe metabolizing enzymes, Mat2a, AMD, AHCY and Mthfr. SAMe supplementation prevented the decrease of AHCY and GNMT, and prevented the increase in Mthfr, which provides a mechanism to explain how DDC inhibits methylation of histones. The results indicate that SAMe prevented the epigenetic cellular memory involved in the MDB formation.

In what sense is implicit memory "episodic"? The effect of reinstating environmental context

We consider three aspects of the term episodic. Previous literature shows implicit memory does not make conscious autobiographical reference but does code an item's intrinsic context (e.g., perceptual detail). Here, we consider extrinsic context--namely, that not directly processed as part of item identification and not overtly relevant to the task. Study-test mismatch in environmental context (outdoors vs. indoors) reduced memory in an explicit stem-cued recall task but had no effect on repetition priming in an implicit stem completion task. This was true even for very low frequency words. We support the view that implicit memory reflects traces within perceptual (or semantic) knowledge-based systems that are instance specific but do not code the full spatiotemporal context information necessary to support conscious recollection. We also interpret our results as consistent with differences in environmental context specificity between free recall and recognition.

Evaluating a systematic voiding programme for patients with urinary incontinence after stroke in secondary care using soft systems analysis and Normalisation Process Theory: findings from the ICONS case study phase

BACKGROUND

Urinary incontinence (UI) affects between 40 and 60% of people in hospital after stroke, but is often poorly managed in stroke units.

OBJECTIVES

To inform an exploratory trial by three methods: identifying the organisational context for embedding the SVP; exploring health professionals' views around embedding the SVP and measuring presence/absence of UI and frequency of UI episodes at baseline and six weeks post-stroke.

DESIGN

A mixed methods single case study included analysis of organisational context using interviews with clinical leaders analysed with soft systems methodology, a process evaluation using interviews with staff delivering the intervention and analysed with Normalisation Process Theory, and outcome evaluation using data from patients receiving the SVP and analysed using descriptive statistics.

SETTING

An 18 bed acute stroke unit in a large Foundation Trust (a 'not for profit' privately controlled entity not accountable to the UK Department of Health) serving a population of 370,000.

PARTICIPANTS

Health professionals and clinical leaders with a role in either delivering the SVP or linking with it in any capacity were recruited following informed consent. Patients were recruited meeting the following inclusion criteria: aged 18 or over with a diagnosis of stroke; urinary incontinence (UI) as defined by the International Continence Society; conscious; medically stable as judged by the clinical team and with incontinence classified as stress, urge, mixed or 'functional'. All patients admitted to the unit during the intervention period were screened for eligibility; informed consent to collect baseline and outcome data was sought from all eligible patients.

RESULTS

Organisational context: 18 health professionals took part in four group interviews. Findings suggest an environment not conducive to therapeutic continence management and a focus on containment of UI. Embedding the SVP into practice: 21 nursing staff took part in six group interviews. Initial confusion gave way to embedding of processes facilitated by new routines and procedures. Patient outcome: 43 patients were recruited; 28 of these commenced the SVP. Of these, 6/28 (21%) were continent at six weeks post-stroke or discharge.

CONCLUSION

It was possible to embed the SVP into practice despite an organisational context not conducive to therapeutic continence care. Recommendations are made for introducing the SVP in a trial context.

Developing the skills required for evidence-based practice

The current health care environment requires practitioners with the skills to find and apply the best currently available evidence for effective health care, to contribute to the development of evidence-based practice protocols, and to evaluate the impact of utilizing validated research findings in practice. Current approaches to teaching research are based mainly on gaining skills by participation in the research process. Emphasis on the requirement for rigour in the process of creating new knowledge is assumed to lead to skill in the process of using research information created by others. This article reflects upon the requirements for evidence-based practice, and the degree to which current approaches to teaching research prepare practitioners who are able to find, evaluate and best use currently available research information. The potential for using the principles of systematic review as a teaching and learning strategy for research is explored, and some of the possible strengths and weakness of this approach are highlighted.

Prevention and treatment of urinary incontinence after stroke in adults

BACKGROUND

Urinary incontinence can affect 40-60% of people admitted to hospital after a stroke, with 25% still having problems on hospital discharge and around 15% remaining incontinent at one year.

OBJECTIVES

To determine the optimal methods for prevention and treatment of urinary incontinence after stroke in adults.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Incontinence and Stroke Groups specialised registers (searched 15 December 2004 and 26 October 2004, respectively), CINAHL (January 1982 to November 2004), national and international trial databases for unpublished data, and the reference lists of relevant articles.

SELECTION CRITERIA

Randomised or quasi-randomised controlled trials evaluating the effects of interventions designed to promote continence in people after stroke.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data extraction and quality assessment were undertaken by two reviewers working independently. Disagreements were resolved by a third reviewer.

MAIN RESULTS

Seven trials with a total of 399 participants were included in the review. Participants were from a mixture of settings, age groups and phases of stroke recovery. No two trials addressed the same comparison. Four trials tested an intervention against usual care, including acupuncture, timed voiding, and two types of specialist professional intervention. One cross-over trial tested an intervention (oestrogen) against placebo. One trial tested a specific intervention (oxybutynin) against another intervention (timed voiding), and one trial tested a combined intervention (sensory-motor biofeedback plus timed voiding) against a single component intervention (timed voiding alone). Reported data were insufficient to evaluate acupuncture or timed voiding versus usual care, oxybutynin versus timed voiding, or sensory motor biofeedback plus timed voiding versus usual care. Evidence from a single small trial suggested that structured assessment and management of care in early rehabilitation may reduce the number of people with incontinence at hospital discharge (1/21 versus 10/13; RR 0.06, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.43), and have other benefits. Evidence from another trial suggested that assessment and management of care by Continence Nurse Practitioners in a community setting may reduce the number of urinary symptoms (48/89 versus 38/54; RR 0.77, 95% CI 0.59 to 0.99), and increase satisfaction with care.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There was suggestive evidence that specialist professional input through structured assessment and management of care and specialist continence nursing may reduce urinary incontinence after stroke. Data from trials of other physical, behavioural, complementary and anticholinergic drug interventions are insufficient to guide continence care of adults after stroke.