Contribution of streetscape audits to explanation of physical activity in four age groups based on the Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS)

Ecological models of physical activity emphasize the effects of environmental influences. "Microscale" streetscape features that may affect pedestrian experience have received less research attention than macroscale walkability (e.g., residential density). The Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS) measures street design, transit stops, sidewalk qualities, street crossing amenities, and features impacting aesthetics. The present study examined associations of microscale attributes with multiple physical activity (PA) measures across four age groups. Areas in the San Diego, Seattle, and the Baltimore metropolitan areas, USA, were selected that varied on macro-level walkability and neighborhood income. Participants (n = 3677) represented four age groups (children, adolescents, adults, older adults). MAPS audits were conducted along a 0.25 mile route along the street network from participant residences toward the nearest non-residential destination. MAPS data were collected in 2009-2010. Subscale and overall summary scores were created. Walking/biking for transportation and leisure/neighborhood PA were measured with age-appropriate surveys. Objective PA was measured with accelerometers. Mixed linear regression analyses were adjusted for macro-level walkability. Across all age groups 51.2%, 22.1%, and 15.7% of all MAPS scores were significantly associated with walking/biking for transport, leisure/neighborhood PA, and objectively-measured PA, respectively. Supporting the ecological model principle of behavioral specificity, destinations and land use, streetscape, street segment, and intersection variables were more related to transport walking/biking, while aesthetic variables were related to leisure/neighborhood PA. The overall score was related to objective PA in children and older adults. Present findings provide strong evidence that microscale environment attributes are related to PA across the lifespan. Improving microscale features may be a feasible approach to creating activity-friendly environments.

Is Your Neighborhood Designed to Support Physical Activity? A Brief Streetscape Audit Tool

INTRODUCTION

Macro level built environment factors (eg, street connectivity, walkability) are correlated with physical activity. Less studied but more modifiable microscale elements of the environment (eg, crosswalks) may also affect physical activity, but short audit measures of microscale elements are needed to promote wider use. This study evaluated the relation of a 15-item neighborhood environment audit tool with a full version of the tool to assess neighborhood design on physical activity in 4 age groups.

METHODS

From the 120-item Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS) measure of street design, sidewalks, and street crossings, we developed the 15-item version (MAPS-Mini) on the basis of associations with physical activity and attribute modifiability. As a sample of a likely walking route, MAPS-Mini was conducted on a 0.25-mile route from participant residences toward the nearest nonresidential destination for children (n = 758), adolescents (n = 897), younger adults (n = 1,655), and older adults (n = 367). Active transportation and leisure physical activity were measured with age-appropriate surveys, and accelerometers provided objective physical activity measures. Mixed-model regressions were conducted for each MAPS item and a total environment score, adjusted for demographics, participant clustering, and macrolevel walkability.

RESULTS

Total scores of MAPS-Mini and the 120-item MAPS correlated at r = .85. Total microscale environment scores were significantly related to active transportation in all age groups. Items related to active transport in 3 age groups were presence of sidewalks, curb cuts, street lights, benches, and buffer between street and sidewalk. The total score was related to leisure physical activity and accelerometer measures only in children.

CONCLUSION

The MAPS-Mini environment measure is short enough to be practical for use by community groups and planning agencies and is a valid substitute for the full version that is 8 times longer.

Disparities in Pedestrian Streetscape Environments by Income and Race/Ethnicity

Growing evidence suggests that microscale pedestrian environment features, such as sidewalk quality, crosswalks, and neighborhood esthetics, may affect residents’ physical activity. This study examined whether disparities in microscale pedestrian features existed between neighborhoods of differing socioeconomic and racial/ethnic composition. Using the validated Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS), pedestrian environment features were assessed by trained observers along 1/4-mile routes (N=2117) in neighborhoods in three US metropolitan regions (San Diego, Seattle, and Baltimore) during 2009–2010. Neighborhoods, defined as Census block groups, were selected to maximize variability in median income and macroscale walkability factors (e.g., density). Mixed-model linear regression analyses explored main and interaction effects of income and race/ethnicity separately by region. Across all three regions, low-income neighborhoods and neighborhoods with a high proportion of racial/ethnic minorities had poorer esthetics and social elements (e.g., graffiti, broken windows, litter) than neighborhoods with higher median income or fewer racial/ethnic minorities (p<.05). However, there were also instances where neighborhoods with higher incomes and fewer racial/ethnic minorities had worse or absent pedestrian amenities such as sidewalks, crosswalks, and intersections (p<.05). Overall, disparities in microscale pedestrian features occurred more frequently in residential as compared to mixed-use routes with one or more commercial destination. However, considerable variation existed between regions as to which microscale pedestrian features were unfavorable and whether the unfavorable features were associated with neighborhood income or racial/ethnic composition. The variation in pedestrian streetscapes across cities suggests that findings from single-city studies are not generalizable. Local streetscape audits are recommended to identify disparities and efficiently allocate pedestrian infrastructure resources to ensure access and physical activity opportunities for all residents, regardless of race, ethnicity, or income level.

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Income and race-based differences in streetscapes may aggravate health disparities.

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Low-income/high-minority neighborhoods had more negative esthetics/social elements.

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High-income White neighborhoods had poorer sidewalks, crosswalks, and intersections.

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Disparities occurred most often in residential, not mixed-use neighborhoods.

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Local streetscape audits are needed to identify and remediate disparities.

Development and reliability of a streetscape observation instrument for international use: MAPS-global

BACKGROUND

Relationships between several built environment factors and physical activity and walking behavior are well established, but internationally-comparable built environment measures are lacking. The Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS)-Global is an observational measure of detailed streetscape features relevant to physical activity that was developed for international use. This study examined the inter-observer reliability of the instrument in five countries.

METHODS

MAPS-Global was developed by compiling concepts and items from eight environmental measures relevant to walking and bicycling. Inter-rater reliability data were collected in neighborhoods selected to vary on geographic information system (GIS)-derived macro-level walkability in five countries (Australia, Belgium, Brazil, Hong Kong-China, and Spain). MAPS-Global assessments (n = 325) were completed in person along a ≥ 0.25 mile route from a residence toward a non-residential destination, and a commercial block was also rated for each residence (n = 82). Two raters in each country rated each route independently. A tiered scoring system was created that summarized items at multiple levels of aggregation, and positive and negative valence scores were created based on the expected effect on physical activity. The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC) was computed for scales and selected items using one-way random models.

RESULTS

Overall, 86.6% of individual items and single item indicators showed excellent agreement (ICC ≥ 0.75), and 13.4% showed good agreement (ICC = 0.60-0.74). All subscales and overall summary scores showed excellent agreement. Six of 123 items were too rare to compute the ICC. The median ICC for items and scales was 0.92 with a range of 0.50-1.0. Aesthetics and social characteristics showed lower ICCs than other sub-scales, but reliabilities were still in the excellent range (ICC ≥ 0.75).

CONCLUSION

Evaluation of inter-observer reliability of MAPS-Global across five countries indicated all items and scales had "good" or "excellent" reliability. The results demonstrate that trained observers from multiple countries were able to reliably conduct observations of both residential and commercial areas with the new MAPS-Global instrument. Next steps are to evaluate construct validity in relation to physical activity in multiple countries and gain experience with using MAPS-Global for research and practice applications.

Developing and Validating an Abbreviated Version of the Microscale Audit for Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS-Abbreviated)

PURPOSE

Macroscale built environment factors (e.g., street connectivity) are correlated with physical activity. Less-studied but more modifiable microscale elements (e.g., sidewalks) may also influence physical activity, but shorter audit measures of microscale elements are needed to promote wider use. This study evaluated the relation of an abbreviated 54-item streetscape audit tool with multiple measures of physical activity in four age groups.

METHODS

We developed a 54-item version from the original 120-item Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS). Audits were conducted on 0.25-0.45 mile routes from participant residences toward the nearest nonresidential destination for children (N=758), adolescents (N=897), younger adults (N=1,655), and older adults (N=367). Active transport and leisure physical activity were measured with surveys, and objective physical activity was measured with accelerometers. Items to retain from original MAPS were selected primarily by correlations with physical activity. Mixed linear regression analyses were conducted for MAPS-Abbreviated summary scores, adjusting for demographics, participant clustering, and macroscale walkability.

RESULTS

MAPS-Abbreviated and original MAPS total scores correlated r=.94 The MAPS-Abbreviated tool was related similarly to physical activity outcomes as the original MAPS. Destinations and land use, streetscape and walking path characteristics, and overall total scores were significantly related to active transport in all age groups. Street crossing characteristics were related to active transport in children and older adults. Aesthetics and social characteristics were related to leisure physical activity in children and younger adults, and cul-de-sacs were related with physical activity in youth. Total scores were related to accelerometer-measured physical activity in children and older adults.

CONCLUSION

MAPS-Abbreviated is a validated observational measure for use in research. The length and related cost of implementation has been cited as a barrier to use of microscale instruments, so availability of this shorter validated measure could lead to more widespread use of streetscape audits in health research.

Online versus in-person comparison of Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS) assessments: reliability of alternate methods

Background

An online version of the Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (Abbreviated) tool was adapted to virtually audit built environment features supportive of physical activity. The current study assessed inter-rater reliability of MAPS Online between in-person raters and online raters unfamiliar with the regions.

Methods

In-person and online audits were conducted for a total of 120 quarter-mile routes (60 per site) in Phoenix, AZ and San Diego, CA. Routes in each city included 40 residential origins stratified by walkability and SES, and 20 commercial centers. In-person audits were conducted by raters residing in their region. Online audits were conducted by raters in the alternate location using Google Maps (Aerial and Street View) images. The MAPS Abbreviated Online tool consisted of four sections: overall route, street segments, crossings and cul-de-sacs. Items within each section were grouped into subscales, and inter-rater reliability (ICCs) was assessed for subscales at multiple levels of aggregation.

Results

Online and in-person audits showed excellent agreement for overall positive microscale (ICC = 0.86, 95% CI [0.80, 0.90]) and grand scores (ICC = 0.93, 95% CI [0.89, 0.95]). Substantial to near-perfect agreement was found for 21 of 30 (70%) subscales, valence, and subsection scores, with ICCs ranging from 0.62, 95% CI [0.50, 0.72] to 0.95, 95% CI [0.93, 0.97]. Lowest agreement was found for the aesthetics and social characteristics scores, with ICCs ranging from 0.07, 95% CI [−0.12, 0.24] to 0.27, 95% CI [0.10, 0.43].

Conclusions

Results support use of the MAPS Abbreviated Online tool to reliably assess microscale neighborhood features that support physical activity and may be used by raters residing in different geographic regions and unfamiliar with the audit areas.

Using an audit tool (MAPS Global) to assess the characteristics of the physical environment related to walking for transport in youth: reliability of Belgian data

Background

The aim was to examine inter-rater and alternate-form reliability of the Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes (MAPS) Global tool to assess the physical environment along likely walking routes in Belgium.

Methods

For 65 children participating in the BEPAS-children study, routes between their individual homes and the nearest pre-defined destination were defined. Using MAPS Global, physical environmental characteristics of the routes were audited by 4 trained auditors (2 on-site, 2 online using Google Street View). Inter-rater reliability was studied for on-site and online ratings separately. Alternate-form reliability was examined by comparing on-site with online ratings.

Results

Inter-rater reliability for on-site ratings was acceptable for 68% of items (kappa range 0.03–1.00) and for online ratings for 60% of items (kappa range −0.03 to 1.00). Acceptable alternate-form reliability was reported for 60% of items (kappa range −0.01 to 1.00/r range 0.31–1.00).

Conclusions

MAPS Global can be used to assess the physical environment of potential walking routes. For areas where Google Street View imagery is widely covered and often updated, MAPS Global can be completed online.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12942-016-0069-1) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos Community and Surrounding Areas Study: sample, design, and procedures

PURPOSE

We describe the sample, design, and procedures for the Community and Surrounding Areas Study (CASAS), an ancillary to the Hispanic Community Health Study/Study of Latinos (HCHS/SOL). The aim of SOL CASAS was to test an ecological model of macro- and micro-neighborhood environment factors, intermediate behavioral (physical activity) and psychosocial (e.g., depression and stress) mechanisms, and changes in cardiometabolic health in Hispanics/Latinos.

METHODS

Between 2015 and 2017, approximately 6 years after the HCHS/SOL baseline (2008-2011), 1776 San Diego HCHS/SOL participants enrolled in SOL CASAS and completed a repeat physical activity assessment. Participants' residential addresses were geoprocessed, and macroenvironmental features of the home were derived from publicly available data concurrent with the HCHS/SOL baseline and Visit 2 (2014-2017). Microscale environmental attributes were coded for 943 unique routes for 1684 participants, with a validated observational tool, concurrent with Visit 2, for SOL CASAS participants only.

RESULTS

Of 2520 HCHS/SOL participants approached, 70.5% enrolled (mean age 55.3 years; 94% Mexican; 67.5% female). Accelerometer adherence (three or more days with at least 10 hours wear time) was outstanding (94%).

CONCLUSIONS

With its more comprehensive ecological model and well-characterized Hispanic/Latino population, SOL CASAS will advance the science concerning the contribution of neighborhood factors to cardiometabolic health.

Reliability of streetscape audits comparing on-street and online observations: MAPS-Global in 5 countries

BACKGROUND

Microscale environmental features are usually evaluated using direct on-street observations. This study assessed inter-rater reliability of the Microscale Audit of Pedestrian Streetscapes, Global version (MAPS-Global), in an international context, comparing on-street with more efficient online observation methods in five countries with varying levels of walkability.

METHODS

Data were collected along likely walking routes of study participants, from residential starting points toward commercial clusters in Melbourne (Australia), Ghent (Belgium), Curitiba (Brazil), Hong Kong (China), and Valencia (Spain). In-person on the street and online using Google Street View audits were carried out by two independent trained raters in each city. The final sample included 349 routes, 1228 street segments, 799 crossings, and 16 cul-de-sacs. Inter-rater reliability analyses were performed using Kappa statistics or Intraclass Correlation Coefficients (ICC).

RESULTS

Overall mean assessment times were the same for on-street and online evaluations (22 ± 12 min). Only a few subscales had Kappa or ICC values < 0.70, with aesthetic and social environment variables having the lowest overall reliability values, though still in the "good to excellent" category. Overall scores for each section (route, segment, crossing) showed good to excellent reliability (ICCs: 0.813, 0.929 and 0.885, respectively), and the MAPS-Global grand score had excellent reliability (ICC: 0.861) between the two methods.

CONCLUSIONS

MAPS-Global is a feasible and reliable instrument that can be used both on-street and online to analyze microscale environmental characteristics in diverse international urban settings.

Physical activity and sedentary time in a rural adult population in Malawi compared with an age-matched US urban population

Objectives

This study was designed to assess patterns of objectively measured physical activity (PA) and sedentary behaviour in a sample of adults in a rural setting from a low-income Sub-Saharan African country (Malawi). The patterns of PA and sedentary behaviour in Malawi were compared with US data collected and analysed using the same methodology.

Methods

The Malawi PA data were collected as part of a survey experiment on the measurement of agricultural labor conducted under the World Bank Living Standards Measurement Study program. ActiGraph accelerometers (model GT3X) were worn on the right hip in a household-based sample of 414 working-age adults (15-85 years).

Results

Mean total and 95% CIs for PA by category in min/day for Malawi adults were: sedentary 387.6 (377.4-397.8), low-light 222.1 (214.7-229.5), high-light 136.3 (132.7-139.9), moderate 71.6 (68.8-74.5), vigorous 1.1 (0.5-1.8) and moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) 72.8 (69.7-75.9). Mean of PA and sedentary behavior (min/day) summed across age and sex groups are compared between Malawi and US samples: sedentary behaviour, 387.6 vs 525.8 (p<0.001); low-light, 222.1 vs 217.0 (p=ns); high-light, 136.3 vs 45.6 (p<0.001); moderate, 71.6 vs 28.0 (p<0.001); vigorous, 1.1 vs 2.5 (p<0.001); MVPA, 72.8 vs 30.5 (p<0.001). Compared with the USA, Malawi participants averaged consistently less sedentary time/day and more minutes/day in all intensity levels of PA, except for low-light and vigorous PA.

Conclusion

Overall, levels of MVPA and high-light activity in adults in Malawi were substantially higher and sedentary time was substantially lower than those observed in US samples using near identical data collection, scoring and analysis.

Validating and Shortening the Environmental Assessment of Public Recreation Spaces Observational Measure

BACKGROUND

Assessment of park characteristics that may support physical activity (PA) can guide the design of more activity-supportive parks. Direct-observation measures are seldom used due to time and resource restraints.

METHODS

The authors developed shortened versions of the original Environmental Assessment of Public Recreation Spaces (EAPRS) tool and tested their construct validity by comparing scores from 40 parks in San Diego, CA to observe park use and PA.

RESULTS

PA elements were positively associated with park use and park PA across all versions, with the highest correlations for trails (.45 for use and .51 for PA using EAPRS-Original; .57 use and .62 PA using Abbreviated; and .38 use and .43 PA using Mini). Presence of amenities, using Abbreviated and Mini versions, was correlated with park use (.71, .64) and PA (.67, .59). The overall park quality score using Abbreviated and Mini had similar correlations (adjusted for park size) with park use (.74, .72) and PA (.72, .70) as EAPRS-Original (.71 use and .73 PA).

CONCLUSION

In all 3 versions, EAPRS overall park scores were strongly related to observed park use and PA. Shorter versions of EAPRS make it more feasible to use park observations in research and practice.

Micro-scale pedestrian streetscapes and physical activity in Hispanic/Latino adults: Results from HCHS/SOL

We examined associations of micro-scale environment attributes (e.g., sidewalks, street crossings) with three physical activity (PA) measures among Hispanic/Latino adults (n = 1776) living in San Diego County, CA. Systematic observation was used to quantify micro-scale environment attributes near each participant's home. Total PA was assessed with accelerometers, and PA for transportation and recreation were assessed by validated self-report. Although several statistically significant interactions between individual and neighborhood characteristics were identified, there was little evidence micro-scale attributes were related to PA. An important limitation was restricted environmental variability for this sample which lived in a small area of a single county.

Associations of home and neighborhood environments with children's physical activity in the U.S.-based Neighborhood Impact on Kids (NIK) longitudinal cohort study

INTRODUCTION

Physical activity is important for children's health and well-being. Supportiveness for physical activity of home and neighborhood environments may affect children's PA, but most studies are cross-sectional. We examined environmental predictors of change in children's physical activity over two years.

METHODS

Data were from the longitudinal, observational cohort study, 'Neighborhood Impact on Kids'. Participants were children (initially aged 6-12 years) and their parent/caregiver (n = 727 dyads) living in neighborhoods throughout San Diego County, California and King County (Seattle area), Washington, USA. Children's moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was measured using accelerometers at T1 (Time 1 or baseline, 2007-2009) and T2, the two-year follow-up. At T1, parents survey-reported on physical activity (PA) equipment at home and demographics. Neighborhood environment was measured using spatial data in Geographic Information Systems (intersection density; park availability) and in-person audits (informal play space near home; park-based PA facilities; land use; support for walking/cycling). Generalized additive mixed models estimated total effects, then direct effects, of environmental attributes on MVPA at T1. Two-way moderating effects of child's sex and age were examined at T1. To examine associations of environmental exposures with changes in MVPA, we estimated interaction effects of environmental attributes on the association between time and MVPA.

RESULTS

On average, children accumulated 146 min/day (standard deviation or SD = 53) of MVPA at T1, and 113 (SD = 58) min/day at T2. There were no significant total or direct effects of environmental attributes on MVPA at T1, and no significant two-way interaction effects of child's age and sex for T1 MVPA. Having informal play spaces proximal to home with more amenities was associated with less MVPA decline from T1 to T2. Higher residential density, higher land use mix, and higher number of PA facilities in nearby parks were unexpectedly associated with greater MVPA decline.

CONCLUSION

Higher quality informal play spaces close to home may help offset declines in MVPA during middle childhood, as they may promote unstructured active play with opportunities for parental or neighbor surveillance. Unexpectedly, environmental factors consistent with higher walkability were associated with greater declines in children's MVPA. As physical activity differs across the lifespan, so may environmental factors that facilitate it.