Promising approaches in the extraction, characterization, and biotechnological applications of ursolic acid: a review

Ursolic acid (UA), a pentacyclic triterpenoid, has gained attention for its pharmacological properties and industrial uses. This study explores natural sources of UA, including Plumeria rubra, apple peels, sage, rosemary, and holy basil, while emphasizing sustainable extraction methods. Advanced techniques like Soxhlet extraction, solvent extraction, supercritical fluid extraction (SFE), enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), and ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE) are optimized to enhance yield and purity. Ethanol and methanol solvent extraction provide effective recovery, while SFE with supercritical CO2 increases selectivity and reduces solvent residue. EAE boosts efficiency by breaking down cell membranes, allowing sustained UA release. With antibacterial, anticancer, antidiabetic, and anti-inflammatory effects, UA holds promise in therapeutics and has applications in nutraceuticals, cosmetics, and food preservation. However, its low water solubility and bioavailability require innovative delivery methods like dendrimers and nanoparticles. This review merges traditional and modern approaches to UA extraction, bioavailability enhancement, and sustainable use, offering new perspectives on its potential in medicine, food technology, and cosmetics.