Platelet-rich plasma gel promotes differentiation and regeneration during equine wound healing

Nonhealing wounds of the lower equine limb represent a challenging model. The platelet is a natural source of a myriad of growth factors and cytokines that promote wound healing. This study evaluates the potential of platelet derived factors to enhance wound healing in the lower equine limb. Platelets were isolated from horse blood and activated with thrombin, a process known to induce growth factor release. This produced a platelet gel composed of platelet-rich plasma (PRP). To test this all-natural wound healant, 2.5-cm(2) full thickness cutaneous wounds were created below the knee and hock of a thoroughbred horse. Wounds were treated with PRP gel or left untreated. Sequential wound biopsies collected at Days 7, 36, and 79 postwounding permitted comparison of the temporal expression of differentiation markers and wound repair. To test the hypothesis that wounds treated with PRP gel exhibit more rapid epithelial differentiation and enhanced organization of dermal collagen compared to controls, tissues were stained for cytokeratin 10, a suprabasal differentiation marker, and the reestablishment of collagen was evaluated by trichrome staining. PRP gel-treated wounds at Day 7 expressed intense cytokeratin 10 staining near the wound junction in suprabasal epidermal layers, while staining in control tissues was less intense and restricted to apical epidermal layers distal to the wound junction. By Day 79, the staining was equal in both groups. However, PRP gel-treated wounds at Day 79 contained abundant, dense collagen bundles oriented parallel to each other and to the overlying epithelium, whereas control tissues contained fewer collagen fibers that were oriented randomly. Thus, treatment of wounds with PRP gel induced accelerated epithelial differentiation and produced tissue with organized, interlocking collagen bundles. This study reveals that this novel all-natural wound healant induced wound repair in injuries previously deemed untreatable.

Pioglitazone blocks ethanol induction of microglial activation and immune responses in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex in a mouse model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

BACKGROUND

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) result from fetal exposure to alcohol and are the leading cause of mental retardation in the United States. There is currently no effective treatment that targets the causes of these disorders. Thus, novel therapies are critically needed to limit the neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative pathologies associated with FASD.

METHODS

A neonatal mouse FASD model was used to examine the role of the neuroimmune system in ethanol (EtOH)-induced neuropathology. Neonatal C57BL/6 mice were treated with EtOH, with or without pioglitazone, on postnatal days 4 through 9, and tissue was harvested 1 day post treatment. Pioglitazone is a peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR)-γ agonist that exhibits anti-inflammatory activity and is neuroprotective. We compared the effects of EtOH with or without pioglitazone on cytokine and chemokine expression and microglial morphology in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex.

RESULTS

In EtOH-treated animals compared with controls, cytokines interleukin-1β and tumor necrosis factor-α mRNA levels were increased significantly in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex. Chemokine CCL2 mRNA was increased significantly in the hippocampus and cerebellum. Pioglitazone effectively blocked the EtOH-induced increase in the cytokines and chemokine in all tissues to the level expressed in handled-only and vehicle-treated control animals. EtOH also produced a change in microglial morphology in all brain regions that was indicative of microglial activation, and pioglitazone blocked this EtOH-induced morphological change.

CONCLUSIONS

These studies indicate that EtOH activates microglia to a pro-inflammatory stage and also increases the expression of neuroinflammatory cytokines and chemokines in diverse regions of the developing brain. Further, the anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective PPAR-γ agonist pioglitazone blocked these effects. It is proposed that microglial activation and inflammatory molecules expressed as a result of EtOH treatment during brain development contribute to the sequelae associated with FASD. Thus, pioglitazone and anti-inflammatory pharmaceuticals more broadly have potential as novel therapeutics for FASD.

Effects of ethanol on immune response in the brain: region-specific changes in adolescent versus adult mice

BACKGROUND

Alcohol use occurs across the life span beginning in adolescence and continuing through adulthood. Ethanol (EtOH)-induced pathology varies with age and includes changes in neurogenesis, neurodegeneration, and glial cell activation. EtOH-induced changes in glial activation and immune activity are believed to contribute to EtOH-induced neuropathology. Recent studies indicate an emerging role of glial-derived neuroimmune molecules in alcohol abuse and addiction.

METHODS

Adolescent and adult C57BL/6 mice were treated via gavage with 6 g/kg EtOH for 10 days, and tissue was harvested 1 day post treatment. We compared the effects of EtOH on chemokine and cytokine expression and astrocyte glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunostaining and morphology in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex.

RESULTS

EtOH increased mRNA levels of the chemokine CCL2/MCP-1 in all 3 regions of adult mice relative to controls. The cytokine interleukin-6 (IL-6) was selectively increased only in the adult cerebellum. EtOH did not affect mRNA levels of the cytokine tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) in any of these brain regions in adult animals. Interestingly, CCL2, IL-6, and TNF-α mRNA levels were not increased in the hippocampus, cerebellum, or cortex of adolescent mice. EtOH treatment of adult and adolescent mice resulted in increased GFAP immunostaining.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, these data indicate an age- and region-specific susceptibility to EtOH regulation of neuroinflammatory and addiction-related molecules as well as astrocyte phenotype. These studies may have important implications concerning differential alcohol-induced neuropathology and alcohol addiction across the life span.

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders and neuroimmune changes

The behavioral consequences of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are serious and persist throughout life. The causative mechanisms underlying FASD are poorly understood. However, much has been learned about FASD from human structural and functional studies as well as from animal models, which have provided a greater understanding of the mechanisms underlying FASD. Using animal models of FASD, it has been recently discovered that ethanol induces neuroimmune activation in the developing brain. The resulting microglial activation, production of proinflammatory molecules, and alteration in expression of developmental genes are postulated to alter neuron survival and function and lead to long-term neuropathological and cognitive defects. It has also been discovered that microglial loss occurs, reducing microglia's ability to protect neurons and contribute to neuronal development. This is important, because emerging evidence demonstrates that microglial depletion during brain development leads to long-term neuropathological and cognitive defects. Interestingly, the behavioral consequences of microglial depletion and neuroimmune activation in the fetal brain are particularly relevant to FASD. This chapter reviews the neuropathological and behavioral abnormalities of FASD and delineates correlates in animal models. This serves as a foundation to discuss the role of the neuroimmune system in normal brain development, the consequences of microglial depletion and neuroinflammation, the evidence of ethanol induction of neuroinflammatory processes in animal models of FASD, and the development of anti-inflammatory therapies as a new strategy for prevention or treatment of FASD. Together, this knowledge provides a framework for discussion and further investigation of the role of neuroimmune processes in FASD.

Ethanol-induced alterations of neurotrophin receptor expression on Purkinje cells in the neonatal rat cerebellum

Ethanol causes loss of Purkinje cells in the cerebellum during the early stages of differentiation and maturation by a presently unknown mechanism. Neuronal vulnerability in the cerebellum parallels the prominent temporal and anatomical gradients of development (i.e. early to late interlobular and posterior to anterior, respectively). Development of Purkinje cells is known to require binding of the neurotrophins, including brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophin-3 (NT3), to the tyrosine-kinase (Trk) receptors TrkB and TrkC, respectively. In addition, Purkinje cells are reported to experience a critical switch between BDNF dependence and NT3 dependence during the period of highest ethanol sensitivity between postnatal days (PN) 4-6. To test the hypothesis that ethanol alters neurotrophin signaling leading to Purkinje neuronal death, the immunohistochemical expression of TrkB and TrkC receptors on Purkinje cells of rat pups following a moderate dose of ethanol was determined at various times surrounding the period of postnatal ethanol vulnerability. Ethanol selectively decreased Purkinje cell expression of TrkB and TrkC receptors following exposures within the vulnerable period (PN4-6). These results suggest that ethanol may induce loss of Purkinje cells by alteration of neurotrophic regulation at this critical stage.

Inflammatory responses to alcohol in the CNS: nuclear receptors as potential therapeutics for alcohol-induced neuropathologies

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD), which results from ethanol exposure during pregnancy, and alcohol use disorder (AUD), which includes both binge and chronic alcohol abuse, are strikingly common and costly at personal and societal levels. These disorders are associated with significant pathology, including that observed in the CNS. It is now appreciated in both humans and animal models that ethanol can induce inflammation in the CNS. Neuroinflammation is hypothesized to contribute to the neuropathologic and behavioral consequences in FASD and AUD. In this review, we: 1) summarize the evidence of alcohol-induced CNS inflammation, 2) outline cellular and molecular mechanisms that may underlie alcohol induction of CNS inflammation, and 3) discuss the potential of nuclear receptor agonists for prevention or treatment of neuropathologies associated with FASD and AUD.

Protection against alcohol-induced neuronal and cognitive damage by the PPARγ receptor agonist pioglitazone

Binge alcohol drinking has emerged as a typical phenomenon in young people. This pattern of drinking, repeatedly leading to extremely high blood and brain alcohol levels and intoxication is associated with severe risks of neurodegeneration and cognitive damage. Mechanisms involved in excitotoxicity and neuroinflammation are pivotal elements in alcohol-induced neurotoxicity. Evidence has demonstrated that PPARγ receptor activation shows anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties. Here we examine whether treatment with the PPARγ agonist pioglitazone is beneficial in counteracting neurodegeneration, neuroinflammation and cognitive damage produced by binge alcohol intoxication. Adult Wistar rats were subjected to a 4-day binge intoxication procedure, which is commonly used to model excessive alcohol consumption in humans. Across the 4-day period, pioglitazone (0, 30, 60mg/kg) was administered orally twice daily at 12-h intervals. Degenerative cells were detected by fluoro-jade B (FJ-B) immunostaining in brain regions where expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines was also determined. The effects of pioglitazone on cognitive function were assessed in an operant reversal learning task and the Morris water maze task. Binge alcohol exposure produced selective neuronal degeneration in the hippocampal dentate gyrus and the adjacent entorhinal cortex. Pioglitazone reduced FJ-B positive cells in both regions and prevented alcohol-induced expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Pioglitazone also rescued alcohol-impaired reversal learning in the operant task and spatial learning deficits in the Morris water maze. These findings demonstrate that activation of PPARγ protects against neuronal and cognitive degeneration elicited by binge alcohol exposure. The protective effect of PPARγ agonist appears to be linked to inhibition of pro-inflammatory cytokines.

Effects of ethanol on immune response in the brain: region-specific changes in aged mice

Background

Alcohol abuse has dramatic effects on the health of the elderly. Recent studies indicate that ethanol increases immune activity in younger animals and that some of these proinflammatory molecules alter alcohol consumption and addiction. However, the effects of alcohol on immune activation in aged animals have not been thoroughly investigated.

Findings

We compared the effects of ethanol on chemokine and cytokine expression in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex of aged C57BL/6 mice. Mice were treated via gavage with 6 g/kg ethanol for 10 days and tissue was harvested 1 day post-treatment. Ethanol selectively increased mRNA levels of the chemokine (C-C motif) ligand 2/monocyte chemotactic protein-1 in the hippocampus and cerebellum, but not in the cortex of aged mice relative to control animals. In this paradigm, ethanol did not affect mRNA levels of the cytokines IL-6 or TNF-α in any of these brain regions in aged animals.

Conclusions

Collectively, these data indicate a region-specific susceptibility to ethanol regulation of neuroinflammatory and addiction-related molecules in aged mice. These studies could have important implications concerning alcohol-induced neuropathology and alcohol addiction in the elderly.

Neuroinflammatory contribution of microglia and astrocytes in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

Ethanol exposure to the fetus during pregnancy can result in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD). These disorders vary in severity, can affect multiple organ systems, and can lead to lifelong disabilities. Damage to the central nervous system (CNS) is common in FASD, and can result in altered behavior and cognition. The incidence of FASD is alarmingly high, resulting in significant personal and societal costs. There are no cures for FASD. Alcohol can directly alter the function of neurons in the developing CNS. In addition, ethanol can alter the function of CNS glial cells including microglia and astrocytes which normally maintain homeostasis in the CNS. These glial cells can function as resident immune cells in the CNS to protect against pathogens and other insults. However, activation of glia can also damage CNS cells and lead to aberrant CNS function. Ethanol exposure to the developing brain can result in the activation of glia and neuroinflammation, which may contribute to the pathology associated with FASD. This suggests that anti-inflammatory agents may be effective in the treatment of FASD.

Neuroimmune mechanisms in fetal alcohol spectrum disorder

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is a major health concern worldwide and results from maternal consumption of alcohol during pregnancy. It produces tremendous individual, social, and economic losses. This review will first summarize the structural, functional, and behavior changes seen in FASD. The development of the neuroimmune system will be then be described with particular emphasis on the role of microglial cells in the normal regulation of homeostatic function in the central nervous system (CNS) including synaptic transmission. The impact of alcohol on the neuroimmune system in the developing CNS will be discussed in the context of several key immune molecules and signaling pathways involved in neuroimmune mechanisms that contribute to FASD. This review concludes with a summary of the development of early therapeutic approaches utilizing immunosuppressive drugs to target alcohol-induced pathologies. The significant role played by neuroimmune mechanisms in alcohol addiction and pathology provides a focus for future research aimed at understanding and treating the consequences of FASD.

Prenatal Ethanol Exposure and Postnatal Environmental Intervention Alter Dopaminergic Neuron and Microglia Morphology in the Ventral Tegmental Area During Adulthood

BACKGROUND

Prenatal ethanol exposure (PE) impairs midbrain dopaminergic (DA) neuron function, which might contribute to various cognitive and behavioral deficits, including attention deficits and increased addiction risk, often observed in individuals with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Currently, the underlying mechanisms for PE-induced deficits are unclear. PE could lead to neuroinflammation by activating microglia, which play an important role in synaptic function. In the present study, we investigated PE effects on microglial activation and DA neuron density and morphology in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). Since postnatal environmental enrichment can reduce neuroinflammation and ameliorate several PE-induced behavioral deficits, we examined if a postnatal environmental intervention strategy using neonatal handling and postweaning complex housing could reverse PE effects on VTA DA neurons and microglia.

METHODS

Pregnant rats received 0 or 6 g/kg/d ethanol by 2 intragastric intubations on gestation days 8 to 20. After birth, rats were reared in the standard laboratory or enriched condition. Male adult rats (8 to 12 weeks old) were used for immunocytochemistry.

RESULTS

The results showed that PE decreased VTA DA neuron body size in standardly housed rats. Moreover, there was a significant decrease in numbers of VTA microglial branches and junctions in PE rats, suggesting morphological activation of microglia and possible neuroinflammation. The PE effects on microglia were normalized by postnatal environmental intervention, which also decreased the numbers of microglial branches and junctions in control animals, possibly via reduced stress.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings show an association between PE-induced morphological activation of microglia and impaired DA neuron morphology in the VTA. Importantly, postnatal environmental intervention rescues possible PE-induced microglial activation. These data support that environmental intervention can be effective in ameliorating cognitive and behavioral deficits associated with VTA DA neuron dysfunctions, such as attention deficits and increased addiction risk.

Ethanol exposure of neonatal rats does not increase biomarkers of oxidative stress in isolated cerebellar granule neurons

Oxidative stress is a candidate mechanism for ethanol neuropathology in fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Oxidative stress often involves production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), deterioration of the mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP), and cell death. Previous studies have produced conflicting results regarding the role of oxidative stress and the benefit of antioxidants in ethanol neuropathology in the developing brain. This study investigated the hypothesis that ethanol neurotoxicity involves production of ROS with negative downstream consequences for MMP and neuron survival. This was modeled in neonatal rats at postnatal day 4 (P4) and P14. It is well established that granule neurons in the rat cerebellar cortex are more vulnerable to ethanol neurotoxicity on P4 than at later ages. Thus, it was hypothesized that ethanol produces more oxidative stress and its negative consequences on P4 than on P14. A novel experimental approach was used in which ethanol was administered to animals in vivo (gavage 6g/kg), granule neurons were isolated 2-24h post-treatment, and ROS production and relative MMP were immediately assessed in the viable cells. Cells were also placed in culture and survival was measured 24h later. The results revealed that ethanol did not induce granule cells to produce ROS, cause deterioration of neuronal MMP, or cause neuron death when compared to vehicle controls. Further, granule neurons from neither P4 nor P14 animals mounted an oxidative response to ethanol. These findings do not support the hypothesis that oxidative stress is obligate to granule neuron death after ethanol exposure in the neonatal rat brain. Other investigators have reached a similar conclusion using either brain homogenates or cell cultures. In this context, it is likely that oxidative stress is not the sole and perhaps not the principal mechanism of ethanol neurotoxicity for cerebellar granule neurons during this stage of brain development.

Ethanol Induces Neuroinflammation in a Chronic Plus Binge Mouse Model of Alcohol Use Disorder via TLR4 and MyD88-Dependent Signaling

Ethanol induces neuroinflammation, which is believed to contribute to the pathogenesis of alcohol use disorder (AUD). Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are a group of pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) expressed on both immune cells, including microglia and astrocytes, and non-immune cells in the central nervous system (CNS). Studies have shown that alcohol activates TLR4 signaling, resulting in the induction of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines in the CNS. However, the effect of alcohol on signaling pathways downstream of TLR4, such as MyD88 and TRIF (TICAM) signaling, has not been evaluated extensively. In the current study, we treated male wild-type, TLR4-, MyD88-, and TRIF-deficient mice using a chronic plus binge mouse model of AUD. Evaluation of mRNA expression by qRT-PCR revealed that ethanol increased IL-1β, TNF-α, CCL2, COX2, FosB, and JunB in the cerebellum in wild-type and TRIF-deficient mice, while ethanol generally did not increase the expression of these molecules in TLR4- and MyD88-deficient mice. Furthermore, IRF3, IRF7, and IFN-β1, which are associated with the TRIF-dependent signaling cascade, were largely unaffected by alcohol. Collectively, these results suggest that the TLR4 and downstream MyD88-dependent signaling pathways are essential in ethanol-induced neuroinflammation in this mouse model of AUD.

Ethanol modulation of hippocampal neuroinflammation, myelination, and neurodevelopment in a postnatal mouse model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are alarmingly common and result in significant personal and societal loss. Neuropathology of the hippocampus is common in FASD leading to aberrant cognitive function. In the current study, we evaluated the effects of ethanol on the expression of a targeted set of molecules involved in neuroinflammation, myelination, neurotransmission, and neuron function in the developing hippocampus in a postnatal model of FASD. Mice were treated with ethanol from P4-P9, hippocampi were isolated 24 h after the final treatment at P10, and mRNA levels were quantitated by qRT-PCR. We evaluated the effects of ethanol on both pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory molecules in the hippocampus and identified novel mechanisms by which ethanol induces neuroinflammation. We further demonstrated that ethanol decreased expression of molecules associated with mature oligodendrocytes and greatly diminished expression of a lacZ reporter driven by the first half of the myelin proteolipid protein (PLP) gene (PLP1). In addition, ethanol caused a decrease in genes expressed in oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs). Together, these studies suggest ethanol may modulate pathogenesis in the developing hippocampus through effects on cells of the oligodendrocyte lineage, resulting in altered oligodendrogenesis and myelination. We also observed differential expression of molecules important in synaptic plasticity, neurogenesis, and neurotransmission. Collectively, the molecules evaluated in these studies may play a role in ethanol-induced pathology in the developing hippocampus and contribute to cognitive impairment associated with FASD. A better understanding of these molecules and their effects on the developing hippocampus may lead to novel treatment strategies for FASD.

Divergent and overlapping hippocampal and cerebellar transcriptome responses following developmental ethanol exposure during the secondary neurogenic period

Background

The developing hippocampus and cerebellum, unique among brain regions, exhibit a secondary surge in neurogenesis during the third trimester of pregnancy. Ethanol (EtOH) exposure during this period is results in a loss of tissue volume and associated neurobehavioral deficits. However, mechanisms that link EtOH exposure to teratology in these regions are not well understood. We therefore analyzed transcriptomic adaptations to EtOH exposure to identify mechanistic linkages.

Methods

Hippocampi and cerebella were microdissected at postnatal day (P)10, from control C57BL/6J mouse pups, and pups treated with 4 g/kg of EtOH from P4 to P9. RNA was isolated and RNA‐seq analysis was performed. We compared gene expression in EtOH‐ and vehicle‐treated control neonates and performed biological pathway‐overrepresentation analysis.

Results

While EtOH exposure resulted in the general induction of genes associated with the S‐phase of mitosis in both cerebellum and hippocampus, overall there was little overlap in differentially regulated genes and associated biological pathways between these regions. In cerebellum, EtOH additionally induced gene expression associated with the G2/M‐phases of the cell cycle and sonic hedgehog signaling, while in hippocampus, EtOH‐induced the pathways for ribosome biogenesis and protein translation. Moreover, EtOH inhibited the transcriptomic identities associated with inhibitory interneuron subpopulations in the hippocampus, while in the cerebellum there was a more pronounced inhibition of transcripts across multiple oligodendrocyte maturation stages.

Conclusions

These data indicate that during the delayed neurogenic period, EtOH may stimulate the cell cycle, but it otherwise results in widely divergent molecular effects in the hippocampus and cerebellum. Moreover, these data provide evidence for region‐ and cell‐type‐specific vulnerability, which may contribute to the pathogenic effects of developmental EtOH exposure.

Cerebellar Transcriptomic Analysis in a Chronic plus Binge Mouse Model of Alcohol Use Disorder Demonstrates Ethanol-Induced Neuroinflammation and Altered Glial Gene Expression

Alcohol use disorder (AUD) is one of the most common preventable mental health disorders and can result in pathology within the CNS, including the cerebellum. Cerebellar alcohol exposure during adulthood has been associated with disruptions in proper cerebellar function. However, the mechanisms regulating ethanol-induced cerebellar neuropathology are not well understood. High-throughput next generation sequencing was performed to compare control versus ethanol-treated adult C57BL/6J mice in a chronic plus binge model of AUD. Mice were euthanized, cerebella were microdissected, and RNA was isolated and submitted for RNA-sequencing. Down-stream transcriptomic analyses revealed significant changes in gene expression and global biological pathways in control versus ethanol-treated mice that included pathogen-influenced signaling pathways and cellular immune response pathways. Microglial-associated genes showed a decrease in homeostasis-associated transcripts and an increase in transcripts associated with chronic neurodegenerative diseases, while astrocyte-associated genes showed an increase in transcripts associated with acute injury. Oligodendrocyte lineage cell genes showed a decrease in transcripts associated with both immature progenitors as well as myelinating oligodendrocytes. These data provide new insight into the mechanisms by which ethanol induces cerebellar neuropathology and alterations to the immune response in AUD.

Ethanol-induced cerebellar transcriptomic changes in a postnatal model of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders: Focus on disease onset

Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) are a group of neurodevelopmental disorders caused by ethanol exposure in utero, which can result in neurocognitive and behavioral impairments, growth defects, and craniofacial anomalies. FASD affects up to 1-5% of school-aged children in the United States, and there is currently no cure. The underlying mechanisms involved in ethanol teratogenesis remain elusive and need greater understanding to develop and implement effective therapies. Using a third trimester human equivalent postnatal mouse model of FASD, we evaluate the transcriptomic changes induced by ethanol exposure in the cerebellum on P5 and P6, after only 1 or 2 days of ethanol exposure, with the goal of shedding light on the transcriptomic changes induced early during the onset and development of FASD. We have highlighted key pathways and cellular functions altered by ethanol exposure, which include pathways related to immune function and cytokine signaling as well as the cell cycle. Additionally, we found that ethanol exposure resulted in an increase in transcripts associated with a neurodegenerative microglia phenotype, and acute- and pan-injury reactive astrocyte phenotypes. Mixed effects on oligodendrocyte lineage cell associated transcripts and cell cycle associated transcripts were observed. These studies help to elucidate the underlying mechanisms that may be involved with the onset of FASD and provide further insights that may aid in identifying novel targets for interventions and therapeutics.