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Anyanwu GI, Davies DH, Molyneux DH, Phillips A. Variation in cuticular hydrocarbons among strains ofAnopheles(Cellia)stephensiListon possibly related to prior insecticide exposure. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1997.11813184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Santos-Gomes GM, Abranches P, Maraghi S, Dirie MF, Silva-Pereira MC, Valverde D, Molyneux DH. Laboratory and field studies onHerpetosomaTrypanosomes from Portugal. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1051/parasite/1993684163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
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Ryan L, Molyneux DH. Reproductive statistics of a natural population ofGlossina morsitans centralisVand. (Diptera: Glossinidae) in Zambia. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1982.11687528] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Njenga SM, Wamae CN, Mwandawiro CS, Molyneux DH. Immuno–parasitological assessment of bancroftian filariasis in a highly endemic area along the River Sabaki, in Malindi district, Kenya. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology 2013; 101:161-72. [PMID: 17316502 DOI: 10.1179/136485907x156933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Lymphatic filariasis is endemic in the coastal areas of Kenya, with four major foci identified in the early 1970s. The prevalence and intensity of Wuchereria bancrofti infection, together with antifilarial antibody responses, were assessed in a historically highly endemic focus along the River Sabaki, in Malindi district. The prevalences of microfilaraemia and antigenaemia (detected by Og4C3 ELISA) were >20% and >40%, respectively, and both increased steadily with age. The high prevalences of antifilarial IgG1 (86%) and IgG4 (91%) responses indicate that most people living in this setting are exposed to W. bancrofti infection. The children investigated had higher levels of antifilarial IgG1 than the adults. The results of this study, based on a battery of currently available parasitological and immunological methods, provide an epidemiological update on lymphatic filariasis on the northern Kenyan coast. They show that the River Sabaki area is still an important focus for bancroftian filariasis and highlight the importance of implementing an elimination programme, to interrupt the transmission of W. bancrofti in all areas of endemicity in Kenya. The detailed baseline data collected in the River Sabaki area make the communities studied ideal as sentinel sites for epidemiological monitoring and the evaluation of the impact of mass drug administrations to eliminate lymphatic filariasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Njenga
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), P.O. Box 54840, Mbagathi Road, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Maraghi S, Molyneux DH, Wallbanks KR. Lysozyme activity in the plasma of rodents infected with their homologous trypanosomes. Iran J Parasitol 2012; 7:86-90. [PMID: 23323096 PMCID: PMC3537481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2012] [Accepted: 10/19/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In this study the concentration of lysozyme in blood plasma of Microtus agrestis, Clethrinomys glareolus, Apodemus sylvaticus, BK rats and outbred white mice before and after infection with culture forms of Trypanosoma microti, T, evotomys, T. grosi, T. lewisi and T. musculi respectively was measured. METHODS Blood samples of rodents, Microtus agrestis, Clethrionomys glareolus, Apodemus sylvaticus, BK rats and outbred mice infected with T. microti, T. evotomys, T. grosi, T. lewisi and T. musculi respectively were collected in heparinized micro- tubes immediately before inoculation and 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 and more than 400 days after intra- perituneal inoculation with 5×10(5)of their homologous trypanosome parasites of which more than half were metacyclic trypomastigote in 0.2 ml of culture medium. Micro- tubes were centrifuged and plasma samples were separated and the lysozyme activity was measured by the agar method. RESULTS Levels of lysozyme rose rapidly three to six days after the inoculation to ten to twenty than their pre- infection levels. They then gradually decreased, although after more than one year they were still two to ten folds higher than controls. The highest level measured occurred in rats infected with T. lewisi and the lowest in A. sylvaticus infected with T. grosi. After one year the highest concentration of lysozyme was in mice infected with T. musculi and lowest in A. sylvaticus. CONCLUSION Persistent enhanced lysozyme levels may prevent re- infection with trypanosomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Maraghi
- Department of Parasitology and Mycology, Abadan Arvand International Division, Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Thalassemia and Haemoglobinopathy Research Centers. Jundishapur University of Medical Sciences, Ahwaz, Iran,Corresponding author:Tel.: +98 9161184914,
| | - DH Molyneux
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembrooke Place, Liverpool L3, 5 QA UK
| | - KR Wallbanks
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembrooke Place, Liverpool L3, 5 QA UK
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Baker MC, Mathieu E, Fleming FM, Deming M, King JD, Garba A, Koroma JB, Bockarie M, Kabore A, Sankara DP, Molyneux DH. Mapping, monitoring, and surveillance of neglected tropical diseases: towards a policy framework. Lancet 2010; 375:231-8. [PMID: 20109924 DOI: 10.1016/s0140-6736(09)61458-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
As national programmes respond to the new opportunities presented for scaling up preventive chemotherapy programmes for the coadministration of drugs to target lymphatic filariasis, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, soil-transmitted helminthiasis, and trachoma, possible synergies between existing disease-specific policies and protocols need to be examined. In this report we compare present policies for mapping, monitoring, and surveillance for these diseases, drawing attention to both the challenges and opportunities for integration. Although full integration of all elements of mapping, monitoring, and surveillance strategies might not be feasible for the diseases targeted through the preventive chemotherapy approach, there are opportunities for integration, and we present examples of integrated strategies. Finally, if advantage is to be taken of scaled up interventions to address neglected tropical diseases, efforts to develop rapid, inexpensive, and easy-to-use methods, whether disease-specific or integrated, should be increased. We present a framework for development of an integrated monitoring and evaluation system that combines both integrated and disease-specific strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- M C Baker
- RTI International, Washington, DC, USA.
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Lee CW, Parker JD, Baldry DAT, Molyneux DH. The Experimental Application of Insecticides from a Helicopter for the Control of Riverine Populations ofGlossina tachinoidesin West Africa. II. Calibration of Equipment and Insecticide Dispersal. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/09670877809414135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. W. Lee
- a Centre for Overseas Pest Research , College House, Wrights Lane, London , W85SJ , UK
| | - J. D. Parker
- a Centre for Overseas Pest Research , College House, Wrights Lane, London , W85SJ , UK
- b World Health Organization, Division of Vector Biology and Control , Geneva , Switzerland
| | - D. A. T. Baldry
- a Centre for Overseas Pest Research , College House, Wrights Lane, London , W85SJ , UK
- b World Health Organization, Division of Vector Biology and Control , Geneva , Switzerland
| | - D. H. Molyneux
- a Centre for Overseas Pest Research , College House, Wrights Lane, London , W85SJ , UK
- c Department of Biology , University of Salford , Salford , M5 4WT , UK
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Molyneux DH, Baldry DAT, van Wettere P, Takken W, de Raadt P. The Experimental Application of Insecticides from a Helicopter for the Control of Riverine Populations of Glossina tachinoides in West Africa. I. Objectives, Experimental Area and Insecticides Evaluated. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/09670877809414134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. H. Molyneux
- a World Health Organization , B.P. 386, Upper Volta, Bobo Dioulasso
- b Department of Biology , University of Salford, Salford M5 4WT , Lancashire , UK
| | - D. A. T. Baldry
- a World Health Organization , B.P. 386, Upper Volta, Bobo Dioulasso
- c Division of Vector Biology and Control , World Health Organization , Geneva , Switzerland
| | - P. van Wettere
- a World Health Organization , B.P. 386, Upper Volta, Bobo Dioulasso
- d c/o American Embassy, USAID , Bamako , Mali
| | - W. Takken
- a World Health Organization , B.P. 386, Upper Volta, Bobo Dioulasso
- e Joint FAO: IAEA Division of Atomic Energy in Food and Agriculture , PO box 590, Vienna , Austria
| | - P. de Raadt
- a World Health Organization , B.P. 386, Upper Volta, Bobo Dioulasso
- f Division of Malaria and other Parasitic Diseases , World Health Organization , Geneva , Switzerland
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Baldry DAT, Molyneux DH, van Wettere P. The Experimental Application of Insecticides from a Helicopter for the Control of Riverine Populations ofGlossina tachinoidesin West Africa. V. Evaluation of Decamethrin Applied as a Spray. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/09670877809414138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- D. A. T. Baldry
- a Division of Vector Biology and Control , World Health Organization , 1211, Geneva , 27 , Switzerland
| | - D. H. Molyneux
- a Division of Vector Biology and Control , World Health Organization , 1211, Geneva , 27 , Switzerland
- b Department of Biology , University of Salford , Salford , M5 4WT , UK
| | - P. van Wettere
- a Division of Vector Biology and Control , World Health Organization , 1211, Geneva , 27 , Switzerland
- c c/o USA Embassy, USAID , Bamoko , Mali
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van Wettere P, Baldry DAT, Molyneux DH, Clarke JH, Lee CW, Parker JD. The Experimental Application of Insecticides from a Helicopter for the Control of Riverine Populations of Glossina tachinoides in West Africa. IV. Evaluation of Insecticides Applied as Aerosols. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009. [DOI: 10.1080/09670877809414137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- P. van Wettere
- a Division of Vector Biology and Control , World Health Organization , Geneva , Switzerland
| | - D. A. T. Baldry
- a Division of Vector Biology and Control , World Health Organization , Geneva , Switzerland
| | - D. H. Molyneux
- a Division of Vector Biology and Control , World Health Organization , Geneva , Switzerland
- b Department of Biology , University of Salford , Salford , Lancs , M4 4WT , UK
| | - J. H. Clarke
- a Division of Vector Biology and Control , World Health Organization , Geneva , Switzerland
- c WHO Vector Biology and Control Research Unit , Kaduna , Nigeria
| | - C. W. Lee
- a Division of Vector Biology and Control , World Health Organization , Geneva , Switzerland
- d COPR, College House , Wrights Lane, London , W8 5SJ , UK
| | - J. D. Parker
- a Division of Vector Biology and Control , World Health Organization , Geneva , Switzerland
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Njenga SM, Wamae CN, Njomo DW, Mwandawiro CS, Molyneux DH. Impact of two rounds of mass treatment with diethylcarbamazine plus albendazole on Wuchereria bancrofti infection and the sensitivity of immunochromatographic test in Malindi, Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2008; 102:1017-24. [PMID: 18550135 DOI: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2008.04.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2008] [Revised: 04/29/2008] [Accepted: 04/29/2008] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Annual single-dose mass treatment of endemic populations with a combination of either diethylcarbamazine (DEC) or ivermectin plus albendazole is recommended as the mainstay of lymphatic filariasis elimination programmes. We evaluated the impact of two rounds of annual mass drug administration (MDA) of DEC and albendazole on bancroftian filariasis in a pilot elimination programme in an endemic area of Kenya. Overall prevalence of microfilaraemia decreased by 65.4%, whereas community microfilarial load decreased by 84% after the two MDAs. The prevalence of parasite antigenaemia determined by immunochromatographic test (ICT) declined significantly by 43.5% after the two MDAs. We also studied the effect of mass treatment on the sensitivity of the ICT. Although the sensitivity of the test before treatment was high (89.9%; kappa=0.909) sensitivity was lower after two MDAs (59.3%; kappa=0.644). The finding raises concern about the reliability of the ICT in long-term monitoring of infection and for establishing programmatic endpoints. The results of the present study indicate a relatively high effectiveness of MDA using a DEC/albendazole combination against Wuchereria bancrofti infection and, therefore, it may be a useful strategy to eliminate lymphatic filariasis in onchocerciasis-free areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Njenga
- Kenya Medical Research Institute, P.O. Box 19464, Post Code 00202, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Diggle PJ, Thomson MC, Christensen OF, Rowlingson B, Obsomer V, Gardon J, Wanji S, Takougang I, Enyong P, Kamgno J, Remme JH, Boussinesq M, Molyneux DH. Spatial modelling and the prediction of Loa loa risk: decision making under uncertainty. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2008; 101:499-509. [PMID: 17716433 DOI: 10.1179/136485913x13789813917463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Health decision-makers working in Africa often need to act for millions of people over large geographical areas on little and uncertain information. Spatial statistical modelling and Bayesian inference have now been used to quantify the uncertainty in the predictions of a regional, environmental risk map for Loa loa (a map that is currently being used as an essential decision tool by the African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control). The methodology allows the expression of the probability that, given the data, a particular location does or does not exceed a predefined high-risk threshold for which a change in strategy for the delivery of the antihelmintic ivermectin is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- P J Diggle
- Department of Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YF, UK.
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Njenga SM, Wamae CN, Njomo DW, Mwandawiro CS, Molyneux DH. Chronic clinical manifestations related to Wuchereria bancrofti infection in a highly endemic area in Kenya. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2006; 101:439-44. [PMID: 17145069 DOI: 10.1016/j.trstmh.2006.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2006] [Revised: 09/12/2006] [Accepted: 09/27/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical examinations were conducted in an effort to provide baseline data for a pilot filariasis elimination programme implemented in a Wuchereria bancrofti-endemic focus in Malindi district, Kenya. Of 186 males aged 15 years and above examined, 64 individuals (34.4%) had hydrocele, and the prevalence of the manifestation in those above 40 years old was 55.3%. The prevalence of leg lymphoedema in persons aged 15 years and above was 8.5%, with a higher rate in males (12.6%) than in females (5.7%). The overall prevalence of inguinal adenopathy was 8.6%, and males had a significantly higher (12.9%) prevalence of adenopathy than females (5.1%) (P<0.001). The data in the present study provided support for consideration of filarial infection as a possible cause of inguinal lymphadenopathy in bancroftian filariasis-endemic areas. The results of this study also indicate that lymphatic filariasis is a serious public health problem in the northern coastal areas and morbidity control programmes should be implemented to alleviate the suffering of those affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- S M Njenga
- Kenya Medical Research Institute (KEMRI), P.O. Box 54840, Mbagathi Road, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Abstract
The control of river blindness (onchocerciasis) has been one of the major public health achievements of recent decades. Initially, vector control was used to stop transmission of the parasite Onchocerca volvulus by blackflies (Simulium) but the introduction of ivermectin (Mectizan) as a means of morbidity control enabled new strategies of distribution to be developed based on community directed treatment. The donation of Mectizan by Merck & Co. Inc. for onchocerciasis control in 1987 'as long as needed' was a public health landmark to be followed by a donation from GlaxoSmithKline of albendazole in 1997 for lymphatic filariasis to which Merck also responded by agreeing to extend their donation to include the coadministration of Mectizan and albendazole. Both the drugs, however, have wider impacts than those specific to filarial parasites and are effective against a range of intestinal parasites, whilst ivermectin has an important effect on ectoparasites. The wider benefits of the annual public health intervention-collateral benefits--therefore include deworming, improved nutritional status, increased growth, improved school performance and attendance, and improved haemoglobin status as a result of the impact of albendazole on hookworm, a major cause of anaemia. More recently, studies suggest that worm-free children have a significantly reduced frequency of malaria specific episodes of fever and Ascaris-infected children have a two-fold higher frequency of cerebral or severe malaria than those without Ascaris. These findings suggest that programmes based on annual interventions to control river blindness and lymphatic filariasis can contribute disproportionately more to a range of public health problems than has been hitherto recognized, thereby assisting in attaining the millennium development goal targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Molyneux
- Lymphatic Filariasis Support Centre, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, UK.
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Kyelem D, Medlock J, Sanou S, Bonkoungou M, Boatin B, Molyneux DH. Short communication: Impact of long-term (14 years) bi-annual ivermectin treatment on Wuchereria bancrofti microfilaraemia. Trop Med Int Health 2005; 10:1002-4. [PMID: 16185234 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3156.2005.01489.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Ivermectin has been and continues to be extensively used to control onchocerciasis in areas of hyper and mesoendemicity within the African Programme of Onchocerciasis Control. As programmes to eliminate lymphatic filariasis (LF) caused by Wuchereria bancrofti expand, areas of coendemicity with onchocerciasis will be incorporated into LF programmes. This study reports that in villages which were hyperendemic for onchocerciasis after some 14 years of treatment with ivermectin, no W. bancrofti could be detected in a population of 1210 individuals whilst in adjacent villages a prevalence of around 3% was found. Despite the long period of ivermectin treatment Mansonella perstans did not appear to respond to ivermectin in this setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kyelem
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK
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Kyelem D, Sanou S, Boatin B, Medlock J, Coulibaly S, Molyneux DH. Impact of long-term ivermectin (Mectizan) on Wuchereria bancrofti and Mansonella perstans infections in Burkina Faso: strategic and policy implications. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2004; 97:827-38. [PMID: 14754495 DOI: 10.1179/000349803225002462] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Parasitological and clinical surveys were used to determine the long-term impact of ivermectin on the prevalence of Wuchereria bancrofti and Mansonella perstans filarial infections, when the drug was given under community-directed-treatment strategies for onchocerciasis control. The study was undertaken in 11 communities in south-western Burkina Faso. Six of the villages investigated had been treated with ivermectin at least once a year for five of 6 years, with a mean coverage of approximately 65% in each round. The other five, adjacent villages, which were matched with the ivermectin-treated communities by size, ethnicity and social and economic activities, had never been treated because they were not endemic for onchocerciasis. Each subject was checked by the microscopical examination of a smear of 'night' blood, by measurement of the level of circulating antigens from adult W. bancrofti, and by clinical examination for hydrocele (if male) and lymphoedema. The prevalences of lymphoedema and hydrocele in the treated villages were similar to those in the untreated. The prevalences and intensities of W. bancrofti and M. perstans microfilaraemia were, however, significantly lower in the ivermectin-treated communities. The implications of this study are discussed in relation to the old Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP) and to the ongoing African Programme for Onchocerciasis (APOC), where extensive and sustained ivermectin distribution is planned through community-based treatment programmes. As with onchocerciasis in Africa, the success of annual treatments to control lymphatic filariasis will depend not only on the number of regular rounds of treatment given but on adequate coverages being achieved in each round. Wherever ivermectin is being distributed alone, for onchocerciasis control, its impact on other filarial infections, notably W. bancrofti, should be evaluated routinely. Any opportunity to add donated albendazole to such distributions should be taken, both to limit the transmission of W. bancrofti and for the wider public-health benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Kyelem
- Lymphatic Filariasis Programme, Ministry of Health, 03 BP 7009, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
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Merelo-Lobo AR, McCall PJ, Perez MA, Spiers AA, Mzilahowa T, Ngwira B, Molyneux DH, Donnelly MJ. Identification of the vectors of lymphatic filariasis in the Lower Shire Valley, southern Malawi. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2003; 97:299-301. [PMID: 15228246 DOI: 10.1016/s0035-9203(03)90149-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
An investigation of lymphatic filariasis vectors in Malawi is reported. Anopheles funestus, A. arabiensis, and A. gambiae sensu stricto had high rates of filarial infection (2.2-3.1%) and carried infective larvae. Anopheles funestus was the predominant species collected (77.6%) and was the primary vector during the study period of April to May 2002.
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Affiliation(s)
- A R Merelo-Lobo
- Vector Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Molyneux
- Lymphatic Filariasis Support Centre, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, UK.
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Gyapong JO, Kyelem D, Kleinschmidt I, Agbo K, Ahouandogbo F, Gaba J, Owusu-Banahene G, Sanou S, Sodahlon YK, Biswas G, Kale OO, Molyneux DH, Roungou JB, Thomson MC, Remme J. The use of spatial analysis in mapping the distribution of bancroftian filariasis in four West African countries. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2002; 96:695-705. [PMID: 12537631 DOI: 10.1179/000349802125001735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The geographical distribution of human infection with Wuchereria bancrofti was investigated in four West African countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Ghana and Togo), using a commercial immunochromatographic test for filarial antigen. Efforts were made to cover each health-system implementation unit and to ensure no sampling point was >50 km from another, but otherwise the 401 study communities were selected at random. The aim was to enable spatial analysis of the data, to provide a prediction of the overall spatial relationships of the infection. The results, which were subjected to an independent random validation in Burkina Faso and Ghana, revealed that prevalence in the adult population of some communities exceeded 70% and that, over large areas of Burkina Faso, community prevalences were between 30% and 50%. Most of Togo, southern Benin and much of southern Ghana appeared completely free of the infection. Although there were foci on the Ghanaian coast with prevalences of 10%-30%, such high prevalences did not extend into coastal Togo or costal Benin. The prevalence map produced should be useful in prioritizing areas for filariasis control, identifying potential overlap with ivermectin-distribution activities undertaken by onchocerciasis-control programmes, and enabling inter-country and sub-regional planning to be initiated. The results indicate that bancroftian filariasis is more widely distributed in arid areas of Burkina Faso than hitherto recognized and that the prevalences of infection have remained fairly stable for at least 30 years. The campaign to eliminate lymphatic filariasis as a public-health problem in Africa will require significantly more resources (human, financial, and logistic) than previously anticipated.
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Affiliation(s)
- J O Gyapong
- Health Research Unit, Ghana Health Service, Ministry of Health, P.O. Box GP-184, Accra, Ghana.
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Anyanwu GI, Davies DH, Molyneux DH, Priestman A. Cuticular-hydrocarbon discrimination between Anopheles gambiaes.s. and An. arabiensislarval karyotypes. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology 2001. [DOI: 10.1080/00034983.2001.11813704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Anyanwu GI, Davies DH, Molyneux DH, Priestman A. Cuticular-hydrocarbon discrimination between Anopheles gambiae s.s. and An. arabiensis larval karyotypes. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 2001; 95:843-52. [PMID: 11784439 DOI: 10.1080/00034980120112270] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/30/2022]
Abstract
Examination of chromatograms of karyotyped larvae of Anopheles gambiae s.s. and Anopheles arabiensis has revealed that there are differences in the profile of their epicuticular hydrocarbons. A discriminant analysis of the quantitative hydrocarbon data has shown that the An. gambiae Mopti 2Rbc/bc karyotype from Mali could be separated from the Forest 2La/a karyotype from Liberia in > 80% of cases. Similar analysis permitted > 80% separation of individuals of two karyotypes of Anopheles arabiensis: 2Rab/ + from Burkina Faso, and 2Rb/b from Madagascar.
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Affiliation(s)
- G I Anyanwu
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Salford, Salford M5 4WT, UK.
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Meek S, Edmondson J, Carroll D, Molyneux DH, Barnish G, Looreesuwan S, Liese B, Hemingway J. Global campaign to eradicate malaria. West J Med 2001. [DOI: 10.1136/bmj.323.7312.571] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Molyneux DH, Barnish G, Looreesuwan S, Liese B, Hemingway J. Global campaign to eradicate malaria. Malaria is paradigm of an emergent disease. BMJ 2001; 323:571. [PMID: 11573485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/21/2023]
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Abstract
Over the past 2 decades scientific advances and evolving strategies have significantly contributed to improved tools for control of vector-borne infections. These are: diagnostics--rapid assessment methods, non-invasive or minimally so yet sensitive and specific; new chemotherapeutics; pyrethroid insecticides and biological insecticidal products; refined strategies, such as combination therapy, rotation of insecticides for resistance management, community-directed treatment, standardized monitoring and evaluation to define programme progress; better epidemiological knowledge through improved identification of parasites and vectors; GIS, remote sensing and climate models which provide tools for epidemic prediction, planning control programmes and permit effective policy analysis; greater involvement of NGDOs (non-governmental development organizations) and CSOs (civil society organizations) in control; advent of donation programmes which involve community-based or directed mass drug distribution. Future problems could be: (1) the over-emphasis on inflexible financing by the insistence of donors on SWAps (sector-wide investment), (2) the over-reliance on pyrethroid pesticides, (3) the over-expectation that basic research will provide new drugs and vaccines for resource-poor settings in the necessary time scales, and (4) the failure to recognize that biological processes have an inherent capacity for change which outstrips the capacity of health services to respond. Malaria is a paradigm of an 'emerging disease'. (5) The challenge of implementing a 'vertical' approach to disease control within national health programmes, in the face of significant donor opposition to such programmes is a challenge even when such approaches will secure a 'public good'.
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Molyneux
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
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Abstract
Lymphatic filariasis is recognized as one of the world's most disabling diseases. Adult lymphatic filarial nematodes live for several years; they infest the lymphatic and blood systems, and are transmitted via mosquito vectors. Acute and chronic disease can develop, manifesting as acute inflammation, hydrocoele, lymphoedema and elephantiasis. The development of a global programme for the elimination of lymphatic filariasis (focusing on disease caused by Wuchereria bancrofti) followed a resolution by the World Health Assembly in 1997 that endemic countries should develop programmes to eliminate lymphatic filariasis as a public health problem. This developed from an earlier recommendation by the International Task Force for Disease Eradication in 1993 that lymphatic filariasis was one of six diseases that could, in theory, be eradicated. Herein we review the current status and future prospects of the Global Lymphatic Filariasis Programme, which was launched in 2000.
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Molyneux
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, UK.
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Molyneux
- Lymphatic Filariasis Support Centre, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
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Taylor M, Molyneux DH. Book Review. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology 2000. [DOI: 10.1080/00034983.2000.11813598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Abstract
For many years, ivermectin has been widely distributed throughout west Africa for the safe and effective control of onchocerclasis. However, recent events in Loa-loa-endemic areas of Cameroon, where severe adverse reactions have occurred, now constrain the public-health use of this drug in the forest habitat of the L. loa vector. We have created a model of L. loa prevalence to identify areas where high endemicity may be associated with the occurrence of such reactions. The model results have been mapped and the areas of overlap between high L. loa prevalence and planned ivermectin distribution for onchocerciasis control identified.
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Anyanwu GI, Molyneux DH, Phillips A. Variation in cuticular hydrocarbons among strains of the Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto by analysis of cuticular hydrocarbons using gas liquid chromatography of larvae. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2000; 95:295-300. [PMID: 10800186 DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762000000300003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Cuticular hydrocarbons of larvae of individual strains of the Anopheles gambiae sensu stricto were investigated using gas liquid chromatography. Biomedical discriminant analysis involving multivariate statistics suggests that there was clear hydrocarbon difference between the Gambian(G3), the Nigerian (16CSS and, its malathion resistant substrain, REFMA) and the Tanzanian (KWA) strains. The high degree of segregation (95%) in hydrocarbons among the four strains investigated indicates that further analysis is needed to enable understanding of hydrocarbon variation in samples of An. gambiae especially from areas where these populations co-exist.
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Affiliation(s)
- G I Anyanwu
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Salford, England, UK.
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Connor SJ, Thomson MC, Molyneux DH. Forecasting and prevention of epidemic malaria: new perspectives on an old problem. Parassitologia 1999; 41:439-48. [PMID: 10697900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/15/2023]
Abstract
There is a clear need for improved epidemic malaria surveillance mechanisms in areas prone to the disease. Epidemiological surveillance systems are rarely able to provide information in a sufficiently timely manner for adequate epidemic response. This is especially true in African countries where surveillance is poorly developed, and particularly so in remote regions of unstable malaria such as desert fringes. There is long standing evidence linking climatic variability and epidemic risk. The last ten years have seen significant developments in Environmental Information System (EIS) for a range of natural resource management purposes. The routine information products from these systems have been shown to be both spatially and temporally related to malaria transmission indicators across the African continent. EIS may therefore provide a useful and cost effective input to epidemic malaria control planning and response.
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Affiliation(s)
- S J Connor
- MALSAT Research Group, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, UK.
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Abstract
Drug resistance is a major problem affecting progress on malaria control, while many current programmes are seeking to introduce impregnated bednets to reduce transmission and hence child mortality and morbidity. David Molyneux, Katherine Floyd, Guy Barnish and Eric Fèvre propose that more consideration should be given to the interaction between transmission control and the development of drug resistance, and that vector control as a means of reducing disease transmission is involved in reducing the rate of development, and the level, of resistance. Therefore, investment in vector control can have important benefits in reducing the future expenditure on drugs (as well as other costs, such as hospitalization, management of resistant cases and severe disease, drug development and household expenditure on malaria chemotherapy). Modelling the many parameters that impact on this complex relationship will better inform policy makers.
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Molyneux
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, UK.
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Molyneux DH. The liverpool school of tropical medicine: 100 years of parasitological achievement. Parasitol Today 1998; 14:440-3. [PMID: 17040842 DOI: 10.1016/s0169-4758(98)01329-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- D H Molyneux
- David Molyneux is Director of the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, UK L3 5QA
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Ismaeel AY, Garmson JC, Molyneux DH, Bates PA. Transformation, development, and transmission of axenically cultured amastigotes of Leishmania mexicana in vitro and in Lutzomyia longipalpis. Am J Trop Med Hyg 1998; 59:421-5. [PMID: 9749637 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.1998.59.421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Axenic cultures of Leishmania mexicana amastigotes were transformed to promastigotes in vitro and in vivo in Lutzomyia longipalpis. In vitro, both exponential phase and stationary phase amastigotes were capable of transforming and growing as promastigotes, but exponential phase amastigotes completed this transition more quickly. In vivo, both populations were capable of establishing infections in sand flies by membrane feeding and could be transmitted to BALB/c mice via bite. A variety of morphologic forms could be observed in vivo, including putative metacyclic promastigotes. Infection rates in sandflies with axenic amastigotes were comparable with those achieved with lesion-derived amastigotes, supporting the use of these cultured forms in studies of parasite biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Y Ismaeel
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, United Kingdom
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Abstract
This paper summarises the impact of different changes (environmental, ecological, developmental) on the one hand, with the impact of control measures on the other. The former group of changes have tended to exacerbate the incidence and prevalence of vector-borne parasitic diseases while the reduced public funds available for the health sector have reduced disease surveillance systems. However, some vector control/eradication programmes have been successful. Vector control in onchocerciasis and Chagas' disease and immediate host control in Guinea worm have reduced the public health importance of these disease. This contrasts, with malaria, where the complexity of different ecological situations and the variable vector ecology have made control difficult and epidemics frequent and unpredictable. Advances in our knowledge of how to implement and sustain insecticide-impregnated bednets which reduce morbidity and mortality in under 5-year olds will be a key issue for the coming years. In African trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis, where control is dependent on effective diagnosis and surveillance followed by high-cost drug treatment, the health services are faced with major challenges--lack of drug availability and diagnostics no vector control--the diseases in some areas assuming epidemic status yet health services are unable to respond. Human African trypanosomiasis and visceral leishmaniasis are fatal if untreated, and require an emergency response approach. Changing vector distribution of Glossina is related to the ability of riverine flies of Glossina palpalis group to adapt to new vegetation patterns. In leishmaniasis changes have occurred in the distribution of the disease associated with development impact, urbanisation, civil unrest and changed agroforestry practice.
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Abstract
This paper addresses the development of control strategies of two different parasitic diseases and identifies commonalities which have contributed to the success of regional intercountry programmes of onchocerciasis control in Africa, the Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP), and the new African Programme for Onchocerciasis Control (APOC) and the Chagas' Disease Control Programme in the southern cone of South America.
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Molyneux DH. The protozoan view of the human condition. Postgrad Med J 1997; 73:769-70. [PMID: 9497943 PMCID: PMC2431538 DOI: 10.1136/pgmj.73.866.769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Abstract
The recognition of onchocerciasis as a major public health problem in the savanna belts of West Africa resulted in the establishment of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP) in 1974. Control was initially based on vector control by weekly larviciding. The OCP is now in transition towards its final phase in which repeated treatment with ivermectin, a safe and effective microfilaricide, is incorporated with vector control, or in certain circumstances is used alone. Ivermectin distribution hingeing on sustainable community systems is the basis of a new programme in endemic African countries outside the OCP and in the Americas. David Molyneux and John Davies describe the latest trends and developments related to onchocerciasis control.
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Affiliation(s)
- D H Molyneux
- Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool, UK.
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Abstract
The statuses of vector-borne diseases have changed over recent years. How a few such diseases have changed and the primary causes of change (urbanization, increased conflict, changes in water-resource management, ecological and environmental change, and reduced health service resourcing) are the subjects of the present review. The key impacts which these primary causes have on selected vectors and the infections they transmit are tabulated. The success of vector-control programmes against onchocerciasis and Chagas disease is discussed, and the methods used to evaluate the epidemiological impact of such controls are described. Bednet programmes for control of malaria are recognized as a potential future means of reducing morbidity and mortality in children. In contrast to the success achieved in limiting Simulium and Triatoma populations through vertical programmes, control of tsetse, whilst successful in Uganda, has not been utilized to stem recent epidemics of sleeping sickness in resource-stressed settings in Central Africa. Vector-borne diseases will continue to be a problem because of the adaptability of vectors, the potential problems of managing effective vector controls within decentralized health systems, and the influence of activities outside the health sector itself. Changes beyond the health sector can increase the problem posed by a vector and increase the frequency of transmission.
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Anyanwu GI, Davies DH, Molyneux DH, Phillips A. Variation in cuticular hydrocarbons among strains of Anopheles (Cellia) stephensi Liston possibly related to prior insecticide exposure. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1997; 91:649-59. [PMID: 9425368 DOI: 10.1080/00034989760752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Cuticular lipids were extracted in hexane from the females of four strains of Anopheles stephensi and separated by capillary gas chromatography. When the chromatograms produced were quantified and compared by discriminant analysis, compositional variations in the hydrocarbons indicated that two of the strains, 'Russ' (originally isolated in the former (U.S.S.R.) and 'Iraq' (from Iraq), both of which were susceptible to DDT and malathion, could be confidently separated from 'Beech' from India and 'St Mal' from Pakistan, both of which were resistant to DDT and malathion. A high degree of hydrocarbon segregation between each of the four strains might be associated with geographical variation. It appears that there are significant and real differences in the hydrocarbons of these strains and these may be at least partially related to genetic alterations resulting from prior insecticide exposure. However, far more analysis is required if any relationship with prior exposure is to be confirmed.
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Affiliation(s)
- G I Anyanwu
- Department of Zoology, University of Fos, Nigeria
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Anyanwu GI, Davies DH, Molyneux DH, Phillips A. Hydrocarbon variation/discrimination between two strains of Anopheles albimanusWied from El Salvador. Annals of Tropical Medicine & Parasitology 1997. [DOI: 10.1080/00034983.1997.11813167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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Anyanwu GI, Davies DH, Molyneux DH, Phillips A. Hydrocarbon variations/discrimination between two strains of Anopheles albimanus Wied from El Salvador. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 1997; 91:493-7. [PMID: 9329986 DOI: 10.1080/00034989760860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- G I Anyanwu
- Department of Zoology, University of Jos, Nigeria
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Boatin B, Molyneux DH, Hougard JM, Christensen OW, Alley ES, Yameogo L, Seketeli A, Dadzie KY. Patterns of epidemiology and control of onchocerciasis in west Africa. J Helminthol 1997; 71:91-101. [PMID: 9192715 DOI: 10.1017/s0022149x00015741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
AbstractThis paper summarizes the work of the Onchocerciasis Control Programme (OCP) in West Africa, a programme which over a 22 year history has reduced the public health problems of blinding onchocerciasis in eleven countries of West Africa through vector control and, more recently, ivermectin distribution. The paper emphasizes the different approaches to control the programme has developed in the different parts of the programme area which have been determined by the epidemiology of the disease (savanna/forest form), the migratory characteristics of the vectors, intensity of the disease before commencement of treatment, the combined impact of vector control and ivermectin and the likelihood of infiltration of infective blackflies from outside the programme area. The programme has constantly monitored the impact of operations on the trends in prevalence, incidence, annual transmission potential, ocular morbidity and species of fly populations, and as a result, has identified areas where special interventions are required until the programme comes to an end in 2002. The paper illustrates the changes in intensity of infection as measured by community microfilarial load and annual transmission potential over the duration of the programme control activities. The paper also defines and justifies the control strategies in different areas and identifies areas for special interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Boatin
- World Health Organization, Onchocerciasis Control Programme, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
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Affiliation(s)
- H B Mafuyai
- Department of Zoology, University of Jos, Nigeria
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Abstract
Cytotaxonomic analysis of Simulium damnosum s.l. larvae collected from 23 sites across 4 bioclimatic zones in Nigeria revealed the presence of 5 cytospecies (S. damnosum s.str., S. sirbanum, S. squamosum, S. yahense and S. soubrense (including the Beffa form). The biogeographical distribution of the sibling species was mostly similar to that observed further west in the OCP area, although geographic cytotaxonomic variation was recorded in S. squamosum, S. damnosum s.str. and S. sirbanum. Some aspects of the chemical and physical environment of the breeding habitats were investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- H B Mafuyai
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Salford, UK
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