The General Functioning Scale of the Family Assessment Device: does it work with Chinese adolescents?

The reliability and validity of the General Functioning (GF) Scale of the Chinese version of the McMaster Family Assessment Device (FAD) were examined in three studies. In Study 1, data based on 361 adolescents showed that the GF scale was temporally stable and internally consistent, and there was support for its concurrent and construct validities. In Study 2, data analyzed from a clinical group and a nonclinical group (N = 281 and 451, respectively) showed that the GF scores were able to discriminate these two groups. With data pertaining to 3649 secondary-school students, Study 3 gives support for the internal consistency, concurrent validity, and construct validity of the GF scale in different adolescent samples. These studies strongly suggest that the GF scale of the FAD possesses good psychometric properties in different Chinese adolescent samples.

Meaning in life and sense of mastery in Chinese adolescents with economic disadvantage

Data from 229 Hong Kong Chinese adolescents with economic disadvantage showed that there was a positive relationship between reported meaning in life and sense of mastery.

Paternal and maternal influences on family functioning among Hong Kong Chinese families

The linkages between dyadic relationships in the family and family functioning were examined in 378 Chinese families on two occasions. The following dyadic relationships were investigated: (a) parent-child relationship qualities reported by adolescent children (questionnaire and interview measures of parenting style, parent-adolescent conflict, parent-adolescent communication, and parent-adolescent relationship) and by their parents (questionnaire measures of parent-child relationship quality and demand); and (b) marital quality reported by the parents via questionnaire measures. Results showed that parents' and children's views of family functioning were longitudinally related to dyadic relationships in the family. Relative to mother-adolescent relationship and mothers' report of marital quality, father-adolescent relationship and fathers' report of marital quality were generally found to have a stronger association with perception of family functioning and its change over time.

Reliability and factor structure of the Chinese version of the Self-report Family Inventory in Chinese adolescents

The Chinese version (C-SFI) of the Self-Report Family Inventory (SFI) was administered to 3,649 Chinese adolescents. Results showed that the C-SFI is internally consistent. Factor analyses revealed that two factors were abstracted from the scale (positive family behavior and negative family behavior), and they could reliably be reproduced in different adolescent subsamples based on gender and grade. Contrary to the previous findings that there are five to six dimensions of the SFI, the present findings show that the C-SFI has two dimensions. This study suggests that clinical practitioners should be cautious in using the subscales in the SFI, particularly for the Chinese.

Parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent antisocial and prosocial behavior: a longitudinal study in a Chinese context

This longitudinal study examined the relationships between parent-adolescent conflict and antisocial and prosocial behavior in Chinese adolescents. Results showed that father-adolescent conflict and mother-adolescent conflict were concurrently related to adolescent antisocial and prosocial behavior. Longitudinal analyses showed that parent-adolescent conflict predicted antisocial behavior but not prosocial behavior. Adolescent antisocial and prosocial behavior was also found to be related to father-adolescent conflict across time. The findings suggest that the linkage between father-adolescent conflict and adolescent social behavior is stronger than that between mother-adolescent conflict and adolescent social behavior.

Prevalence of anxiety and depression in Australian adolescents: comparisons with worldwide data

Data from two Australian studies were combined so that the prevalence of anxiety and depression in a large, normative sample of Australian adolescents could be investigated. The combined sample comprised 1,299 adolescents randomly selected from metropolitan and country schools in Melbourne, a large Australian city. The data were examined in order to ascertain the percentages of adolescents who scored above the clinical cut-off on two self-report instruments--the Revised Children's Manifest Anxiety Scale (C. R. Reynolds & B. O. Richmond, 1985) and the Reynolds Adolescent Depression Scale (W. M. Reynolds, 1986). The results of these analyses were then compared with previously reported prevalence rates from studies worldwide. This comparison revealed striking differences in the prevalence of anxiety and depression across different countries and cultures. Limitations attributable to different self-report measures and imposed-etic approaches are discussed. Issues pertaining to social and political climate are also raised.

Parental, peer, and teacher influences on the social behavior of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents

Intensive interviews and self-report questionnaires were used to investigate parental, peer, and teacher influences on the prosocial and antisocial behaviors of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents. Students came from 5 academically different high schools. Results indicated that perceived parental influence was positively associated with frequency of prosocial behavior and negatively associated with frequency of delinquent behavior. Students with good relationships with their parents and peers showed lower frequencies of antisocial behaviors than did students with bad relationships. Adolescents in different identity statuses (achievement, moratorium, foreclosure, diffusion; E. H. Erikson, 1968) showed different patterns of prosocial and antisocial behaviors. For example, adolescents in the identity achievement group exhibited high frequencies of prosocial behaviors and low frequencies of antisocial behaviors, but those in the identity moratorium group exhibited quite high frequencies of both prosocial and antisocial behaviors.

Differences between fathers and mothers in the treatment of, and relationship with, their teenage children: perceptions of Chinese adolescents

Chinese adolescents' perceptions of differences between mothers and fathers in parenting styles, parent-adolescent communication (frequency and related feelings), and quality of the parent-adolescent relationship were assessed via questionnaires and individual interviews. Fathers, as compared with mothers, were perceived to be less responsive, less demanding, to demonstrate less concern, but to be more harsh, and paternal parenting was less liked. There was less communication with fathers, and adolescents reported more negative feelings when communicating with fathers than with mothers. They evaluated the father-adolescent relationship more negatively than they did the mother-adolescent relationship. Adolescent females, as compared with males, perceived their parents to be more demanding but less harsh. Parenting characteristics were rated less favorably across time.

Paternal and maternal influences on the psychological well-being of Chinese adolescents

Adolescents' (N = 378) perceptions of and satisfaction with parenting styles, perceived parent-adolescent conflict, perceived frequency of parent-adolescent communication and related feelings, perceived parent-adolescent relationship, and mental health were assessed with rating scales and structured interviews on 2 occasions separated by 1 year. Results showed that the questionnaire and interview measures at each time could be grouped into 2 stable factors: Paternal Parenthood Qualities (PPQ) and Maternal Parenthood Qualities (MPQ). Although both factors generally had significant concurrent and longitudinal correlations with adolescents' mental health, PPQ at Time 1-predicted changes in adolescent life satisfaction, hopelessness, self-esteem, purpose in life, and general psychiatric morbidity at Time 2, whereas MPQ at Time 1 did not predict those changes. Adolescents' mental health at Time 1 was found to predict changes in MPQ but not PPQ at Time 2. Relative to maternal qualities, paternal qualities were generally found to exert a stronger impact on adolescent psychological well-being.

Parenting characteristics and adolescent psychological well-being: a longitudinal study in a Chinese context

In this longitudinal study, the relationships between perceived parenting characteristics and adolescent psychological well-being were examined in a sample of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents (N = 378). The results indicated that global parenting styles and specific parenting behaviors are concurrently related to hopelessness, life satisfaction, self-esteem, purpose in life, and general psychiatric morbidity at Time 1 and Time 2. Longitudinal and prospective analyses (Time 1 predictors of Time 2 criterion variables) suggested that the relations between parenting characteristics and adolescent psychological well-being are bidirectional in nature. The results indicated that the strengths of association between perceived parenting characteristics and adolescent psychological well-being are stronger in female than in male adolescents. Relative to maternal parenting characteristics, paternal parenting was found to exert a stronger influence on adolescent psychological well-being.

A longitudinal study of Hong Kong adolescents' and parents' perceptions of family functioning and well-being

In this longitudinal study, the relationships between Hong Kong Chinese adolescents' and parents' discrepancies in their perceptions of family functioning and adolescents' psychological well-being were investigated via adolescents' and parents' reports of family functioning (N = 378 families). Results showed that discrepancies in perceptions of family functioning between adolescents and parents were related to adolescents' feelings of hopelessness, life satisfaction, self-esteem, purpose in life, and general psychiatric morbidity at Time 1 and Time 2. Longitudinal and prospective analyses (Time 1 predictors predicting Time 2 criterion variables) suggested that the relationship between discrepancies in perceptions of family functioning and adolescents' psychological well-being are bidirectional. Adolescent-father and adolescent-mother discrepancies had similar effects on adolescents' psychological well-being. The negative impact of discrepancies among family members in perceptions of family functioning on adolescents' psychological well-being was greater for adolescent girls than for adolescent boys.

Adolescents' perceptions of paternal and maternal parenting styles in a Chinese context

Chinese secondary school students (N = 429) were asked to respond to instruments measuring their perception of parents' global parenting styles and specific parenting practices. Results showed that there were significant differences between reported paternal parenting and maternal parenting characteristics, with fathers perceived as relatively less responsive, less demanding, less concerned, and more harsh. Adolescent girls' perceptions of fathers' parenting characteristics generally did not differ from those of the boys, but the girls tended to perceive their mothers as more demanding but less harsh. The present findings provide some support for the popular Chinese saying, "strict father, kind mother," but they also suggest that it requires redefinition.

A longitudinal study of the relations between parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent psychological well-being

In this longitudinal study, the relationships between parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent psychological well-being were examined in a sample of Chinese adolescents (N = 378) via children's and parents' reports of parent-adolescent conflict. The results indicate that parent-adolescent conflict based on ratings obtained from the different sources was concurrently related to hopelessness, life satisfaction, self-esteem, purpose in life, and general psychiatric morbidity at Time 1 and Time 2. Longitudinal and prospective analyses (Time 1 predictors of Time 2 criterion variables) suggest that the relations between parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent psychological well-being are bidirectional. Although the strengths of association between parent-adolescent conflict and adolescent psychological well-being were similar for male and female adolescents, father-adolescent conflict, relative to mother-adolescent conflict, was found to exert a stronger influence on adolescent psychological well-being.

Conceptions of success: their correlates with prosocial orientation and behaviour in Chinese adolescents

Data from a sample of 673 Chinese adolescents lent support to the hypothesis that conceptions of success or achievement goals affect both the inclination to and the actual performance of prosocial acts. With regard to attitude, it was found that: (a) task orientation (belief that success is gaining skill or understanding) and collaboration orientation (belief that success is working productively with one or more collaborators) increased with the inclination to help others, to co-operate and share things with others, to maintain an affective relationship with others, and to behave in compliance with social norms; and (b) ego orientation (belief that success is establishing one's competence as superior) was not generally associated with the inclination to perform prosocial acts. With regard to action, it was found that task orientation and collaboration orientation, but not ego orientation, increased with the number of normative and altruistic acts in the past year. The similarity between the belief-attitude correlation and the belief-action correlation indicates the robustness of the influence of conceptions of success. Also, sex differences and grade differences in the relationship between conceptions of success and prosocial and antisocial behaviours were found. Implications of the findings are discussed.

The relation of family functioning to adolescent psychological well-being, school adjustment, and problem behavior

The association between family functioning and adolescent adjustment was examined in 429 Chinese adolescents via children's and parents' reports. The ratings obtained from the different sources indicated that family functioning was significantly related to measures of (a) adolescent psychological well-being (general psychiatric morbidity, life satisfaction, purpose in life, hopelessness, and self-esteem), (b) school adjustment (perceived academic performance and school conduct), and (c) problem behavior (smoking and abusing psychotropic drugs). The findings suggest that there is an intimate link between family functioning and the psychosocial adjustment, particularly the positive mental health, of Chinese adolescents.

Family environment and adolescent psychological well-being, school adjustment, and problem behavior: a pioneer study in a Chinese context

Chinese secondary school students (N = 365) responded to instruments measuring their family environment, psychological well-being, school adjustment, and problem behavior. Measures of the family environment include perceived paternal and maternal parenting styles, family functioning, and conflict with father and mother. Results from bivariate and canonical correlation analyses showed that in general, adolescents' perceptions of parenting styles, family functioning, and parent-adolescent conflict were significantly related to scores on measures of psychological well-being (general psychiatric morbidity, life satisfaction, purpose in life, hopelessness, and self-esteem), school adjustment (perceived academic performance and school conduct), and problem behavior (smoking and psychotropic drug abuse). The findings suggest that family factors play an important role in influencing the psychosocial adjustment, particularly the positive mental health, of Chinese adolescents.

The relation of prosocial and antisocial behavior to personality and peer relationships of Hong Kong Chinese adolescents

The prosocial and antisocial behaviors of 2,862 Hong Kong Chinese adolescents were investigated. The major findings were as follows: (a) boys were more antisocial than girls: (b) negative peer influences were significantly stronger in boys than in girls, whereas positive peer influences were significantly stronger in girls than in boys; (c) antisocial adolescents tended to perceive their best friend as antisocial and exerting more negative influences on them, whereas prosocial adolescents tended to perceive their best friend as prosocial and exerting more positive influences on them; (d) antisocial behavior was positively associated with psychoticism and neuroticism; and (e) academic achievement tended to have a positive relation with prosocial behavior and a negative relation with antisocial behavior.

Midlife crisis in Chinese men and women

Married adults (N = 1,501) between the ages of 30 and 60 years responded to the 15-item Chinese Midlife Crisis Scale. An examination of the levels of concerns in six midlife age groups showed that although some respondents were dissatisfied with their work and personal achievement, a majority did not indicate dissatisfaction at the crisis level; thus the findings did not lend strong support to the existence of normative midlife crisis. The findings also revealed that although midlife crisis levels were different in the various age groups, there was no clear rise of peak in concerns in any particular age group. Further analyses based on different dimensions of midlife crisis showed that women displayed higher levels of overall midlife concerns and problems and fear of aging than men did.

The Chinese version of the Dyadic Adjustment Scale: does language make a difference?

The Chinese version of the Dyadic Adjustment Scale (C-DAS) was administered to 1,501 married adults, along with other instruments that assessed their psychosocial adjustment. Factor analysis showed that four factors were abstracted from the C-DAS (Dyadic Consensus, Dyadic Cohesion, Dyadic Satisfaction, and Affectional Expression); the factors extracted could be reproduced reliably in two random subsamples, as well as in the male and female samples. Although some areas of refinement are suggested, the present data generally support the universality of the concept of dyadic adjustment as indexed by the Dyadic Adjustment Scale. Contrary to the data reported previously, the present factor structures based on the male and female samples were highly similar and stable.

Chinese adolescents' perceptions of parenting styles of fathers and mothers

Father Treated and Mother Treated subscales of the Parent Image Differential were used to assess recalled parental treatment styles of 2,150 Chinese secondary school students. Results from reliability and factor analyses showed that both scales were internally consistent, and two factors (Concern and Restrictiveness) were abstracted from each of these scales. The data on gender differences in parenting revealed significant differences, across socioeconomic classes, between paternal and maternal treatment styles, with the fathers perceived to be relatively more restrictive and showing less concern than the mothers. The data suggest that differences between paternal and maternal treatment styles exist in the Chinese context but that signs of gradual change in the differences are appearing.

Reliability and factor structure of the Chinese GHQ-30 for parents with preschool mentally handicapped children

The Chinese version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-30) was administered to 381 parents of preschool mentally handicapped children, along with other instruments that assessed their stress, mental health, coping styles, and care-giving patterns. The GHQ-30 was found to have high internal consistency as a scale and high item-total correlations for most of the items. Factor analysis with a four-factor solution showed that four factors were abstracted from the scale, namely, anxiety, depression, interpersonal dysfunctioning, and inadequate coping. It also was found that the factors extracted could be reproduced reliably in two random subsamples and that the factor structure derived from the present sample corresponds to the previously reported data on the dimensionality of the Chinese GHQ-30.

Assessment of private and public self-consciousness: a Chinese replication

The Chinese version of the revised Self-Consciousness Scale (C-SCS) of Scheier and Carver (1985) was administered to 500 Chinese university students. Both exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses revealed that three factors (Private Self-consciousness, Public Self-consciousness, and Social Anxiety) were abstracted from the scale, and reliability data also showed that the C-SCS and its three subscales are internally consistent. While the present findings are generally consistent with the conceptualization of Scheier and Carver (1985) and the data reported previously, an integration of the present study and the data in the literature suggests that some of the items and their related rationales in the original and revised Self-Consciousness Scale may require refinement and modification.

Factor structure of the Chinese version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHO-30): a confirmatory factor analysis

The factor structure of responses to the Chinese version of the General Health Questionnaire (CGHQ-30) in a sample of 2,150 Chinese secondary school students was examined using the LISREL approach to confirmatory factor analysis. The results showed that while a five-factor model (Anxiety, Depression, Inadequate Coping, Social Dysfunctioning and Sleep Disturbances) was able to fit the data, a higher-order factor model with five primary factors (Anxiety, Depression, Inadequate Coping, Social Dysfunctioning and Sleep Disturbances) and a second-order factor (General Psychopathology) was found to be a more parsimonious model. The present findings are discussed with reference to the controversies that surround the dimensionality of the General Health Questionnaire.

The Chinese version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory: its relationship to different measures of psychological well-being

The Chinese version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (C-STAI) was administered to 2,150 Chinese secondary school students, along with other measures of psychological well-being. The results showed that the correlation between A-State and A-Trait scores was significant, and both scales correlated significantly with all other measures of psychological well-being. Analyses of the strengths of association among the measures revealed that while A-Trait and A-State scores were differentially sensitive to indices of chronic mental health attributes and acute symptoms, both scales were found to be more predictive of measures of anxiety. These findings generally provided support for the concurrent validity of the C-STAI, and the significant correlation between A-State and A-Trait is consistent with data reported in the literature.

Meaning in life and psychological well-being: an empirical study using the Chinese version of the Purpose in Life questionnaire

The Chinese version of the Purpose in Life questionnaire (C-PIL) was administered to 2,150 Chinese secondary school students, along with other instruments assessing psychiatric symptoms and positive mental health. Total C-PIL and its two subscales, Quality of Existence (QEXIST) and Purpose of Existence (PEXIST), correlated significantly with all measures of psychological well-being. Relative to PEXIST scores, QEXIST scores were found to be more predictive of psychological well-being. Subjects with different existential status (defined by high vs. low levels of QEXIST and PEXIST) were associated with different degrees of psychological well-being. The concept of meaning in life, as indexed by the C-PIL, and the hypothesis that life meaning is related to psychological well-being require further elaboration and refinement.

What does the Chinese version of the Beck Depression Inventory measure in Chinese students--general psychopathology or depression?

The Chinese version of the Beck Depression Inventory (C-BDI) was administered to 2,150 Chinese secondary-school students, along with other measures of psychological well-being. While C-BDI scores were found to correlate significantly with all other measures of psychological well-being for the various samples, the results showed that they correlated most strongly with the Depression factor of the Chinese General Health Questionnaire. The Depression factor of the Chinese GHQ was observed to be most predictive of C-BDI scores. These data are generally consistent with the empirical data on the relationship between the BDI and other measures of psychological well-being; the claim that the BDI is more a measure of "general psychopathology" is not supported by the present findings.

Reliability and factorial structure of the Chinese version of the Beck Depression Inventory

The Chinese version of the Beck Depression Inventory (C-BDI) was administered to 2,150 Chinese secondary school students. The BDI was found to have high internal consistency as a scale and high item-total correlations for most of the items. Factor analysis with a two-factor solution showed that two factors were abstracted from the scale, namely, general depression and somatic disturbances. By randomly splitting the total sample into two subsamples, these two factors could be reproduced reliably, and high coefficients of congruence were found. These findings generally suggest that the Chinese version of the BDI possesses acceptable psychometric properties, and the factor analytic data tend to support Beck's multi-dimensional view of depression as a construct.

Reliability and factorial structure of the Chinese version of the Beck Depression Inventory

The Chinese version of the Beck Depression Inventory (C-BDI) was administered to 2,150 Chinese secondary school students. The BDI was found to have high internal consistency as a scale and high item-total correlations for most of the items. Factor analysis with a two-factor solution showed that two factors were abstracted from the scale, namely, general depression and somatic disturbances. By randomly splitting the total sample into two subsamples, these two factors could be reproduced reliably, and high coefficients of congruence were found. These findings generally suggest that the Chinese version of the BDI possesses acceptable psychometric properties, and the factor analytic data tend to support Beck's multi-dimensional view of depression as a construct.

Perceptions of parental treatment styles and psychological well-being in Chinese adolescents

Chinese secondary school students (N = 2,150) responded to instruments assessing their parent's treatment styles and their own psychological well-being. Results arising from bivariate and canonical correlation analyses showed that students' assessments of paternal (PT) and maternal (MT) treatment styles correlated significantly with measures of their general psychiatric morbidity, anxiety, depression, somatic symptoms, purpose in life, and ego strength. PT and MT were most strongly correlated with total scores on the Purpose in Life Questionnaire. These findings generally suggest that Chinese adolescents' recollections of their parents' treatment styles are significantly associated with their own psychological well-being, whether defined by active or passive mental health criteria.

Validity of the Chinese version of the General Health Questionnaire

The Chinese version of the General Health Questionnaire-30 was administered to 2,150 Chinese secondary school students, along with several other scales that measure somatic and psychological symptoms. GHQ scores were found to correlate significantly with all other measures of psychopathology for the various samples. Further analyses indicated that while the GHQ correlated more strongly with scales that assess acute symptoms than with scales that measure chronic problems, GHQ correlations were higher with measures of state as well as trait anxiety relative to indices that primarily reflect non-anxiety-related symptoms. Correlations between the various factor scores of the GHQ and other indices of psychopathology also were found to be mostly significant. These findings generally suggest that the Chinese GHQ-30 is a valid instrument that assesses "general" psychological health, and the data provide support for the validity of some of the factorial dimensions of this scale.

Sex differences in the psychological well-being of Chinese adolescents

This study assessed sex differences affecting the psychological well-being of Chinese adolescents. Various instruments were used to measure psychiatric symptoms and positive mental health. The results showed that female adolescents displayed significantly more psychiatric as well as somatic symptoms and scored lower on scales reflecting positive mental health. The findings are generally consistent with those found in the Western literature, but suggest that, in the Chinese culture, sex differences in mental health begin to appear in adolescents.

Reliability and factorial structure of the Chinese version of the Purpose in Life Questionnaire

The Chinese version of the Purpose in Life Questionnaire (PIL) was administered to 2,140 secondary school students. The PIL was found to have high internal consistency as a scale and high item-total correlations for most of the items. Factor analysis with a five-factor solution showed that five factors were abstracted from the scale, namely, Quality of Life, Meaning of Existence, Death, Choice, and Retirement. By randomly splitting the total sample into two subsamples, high coefficients of congruence were found for Factors 1,2,3, and 5. Alternative analysis with a two-factor solution showed that two general factors, namely, Existence and Death, could be extracted. The psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the PIL and the implications of the findings were discussed.

Reliability and factorial structure of the Chinese version of the General Health Questionnaire

The Chinese version of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ) was administered to 2,150 Chinese secondary school students. The GHQ was found to have high internal consistency as a scale and high item-total correlations for most of the items. Factor analysis with a five-factor solution showed that five factors were abstracted from the scale, namely, anxiety, depression, inadequate coping, interpersonal dysfunctioning, and sleep disturbances. By randomly splitting the total sample into two subsamples, these five factors could be reproduced reliably, and high coefficients of congruence were found. The psychometric properties of the Chinese version of the GHQ and the implications of the findings were discussed.

Effect of the orienting response on sensory discriminability

The effects of orienting responses to different types of stimuli on acquisition of information were studied. Subjects underwent a standard habituation series of 15 trials. On Trial 16, they received one of following three stimuli: (a) no-change stimulus--same stimulus as habituation stimulus, (b) innocuous-change stimulus, (c) significant-change stimulus--the subject's own name. These orienting stimuli were followed 500 msec. later by an imperative stimulus (100 msec.) which contained a number of Chinese characters. The subjects were then unexpectedly asked to recall and recognize these characters. Recall and recognition were consistently superior in conditions with significant and innocuous change relative to no change, which indicated that the orienting response to unexpected stimuli is related to a generalized perceptual enhancement. The data pose problems for the position that the orienting response reflects only the passive 'registration' of the eliciting stimulus information. While digital pulse-amplitude data showed no difference among the conditions for the change trial, these conditions were differentiated by electrodermal and cardiac changes.