1
|
Affiliation(s)
- Alyssa‐Lois M. Gehman
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
- Hakai Institute End of Kwakshua Channel, Calvert Island British Columbia Canada
- Department of Zoology University of British Columbia Vancouver British Columbia Canada
| | - Dara A. Satterfield
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
- Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute Washington D.C. USA
| | - Carolyn L. Keogh
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
- Department of Environmental Sciences Emory University Atlanta Georgia USA
| | | | - Sarah A. Budischak
- Odum School of Ecology University of Georgia Athens Georgia USA
- W. M. Keck Science Department of Claremont McKenna College Claremont California USA
- W. M. Keck Science Department of Pitzer College Claremont California USA
- W. M. Keck Science Department of Scripps College Claremont California USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Abstract
Migratory animals undergo seasonal and often spectacular movements and perform crucial ecosystem services. In response to anthropogenic changes, including food subsidies, some migratory animals are now migrating shorter distances or halting migration altogether and forming resident populations. Recent studies suggest that shifts in migratory behaviour can alter the risk of infection for wildlife. Although migration is commonly assumed to enhance pathogen spread, for many species, migration has the opposite effect of lowering infection risk, if animals escape from habitats where pathogen stages have accumulated or if strenuous journeys cull infected hosts. Here, we summarize responses of migratory species to supplemental feeding and review modelling and empirical work that provides support for mechanisms through which resource-induced changes in migration can alter pathogen transmission. In particular, we focus on the well-studied example of monarch butterflies and their protozoan parasites in North America. We also identify areas for future research, including combining new technologies for tracking animal movements with pathogen surveillance and exploring potential evolutionary responses of hosts and pathogens to changing movement patterns. Given that many migratory animals harbour pathogens of conservation concern and zoonotic potential, studies that document ongoing shifts in migratory behaviour and infection risk are vitally needed.This article is part of the theme issue 'Anthropogenic resource subsidies and host-parasite dynamics in wildlife'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dara A Satterfield
- Migratory Bird Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Peter P Marra
- Migratory Bird Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, USA
| | - T Scott Sillett
- Migratory Bird Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Sonia Altizer
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Altizer S, Becker DJ, Epstein JH, Forbes KM, Gillespie TR, Hall RJ, Hawley DM, Hernandez SM, Martin LB, Plowright RK, Satterfield DA, Streicker DG. Food for contagion: synthesis and future directions for studying host-parasite responses to resource shifts in anthropogenic environments. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2019. [PMID: 29531154 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2017.0102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Human-provided resource subsidies for wildlife are diverse, common and have profound consequences for wildlife-pathogen interactions, as demonstrated by papers in this themed issue spanning empirical, theoretical and management perspectives from a range of study systems. Contributions cut across scales of organization, from the within-host dynamics of immune function, to population-level impacts on parasite transmission, to landscape- and regional-scale patterns of infection. In this concluding paper, we identify common threads and key findings from author contributions, including the consequences of resource subsidies for (i) host immunity; (ii) animal aggregation and contact rates; (iii) host movement and landscape-level infection patterns; and (iv) interspecific contacts and cross-species transmission. Exciting avenues for future work include studies that integrate mechanistic modelling and empirical approaches to better explore cross-scale processes, and experimental manipulations of food resources to quantify host and pathogen responses. Work is also needed to examine evolutionary responses to provisioning, and ask how diet-altered changes to the host microbiome influence infection processes. Given the massive public health and conservation implications of anthropogenic resource shifts, we end by underscoring the need for practical recommendations to manage supplemental feeding practices, limit human-wildlife conflicts over shared food resources and reduce cross-species transmission risks, including to humans.This article is part of the theme issue 'Anthropogenic resource subsidies and host-parasite dynamics in wildlife'.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Altizer
- Odum School of Ecology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA .,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Daniel J Becker
- Odum School of Ecology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | | | - Kristian M Forbes
- Department of Virology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.,Department of Biology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA.,Center for Infectious Disease Dynamics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA
| | - Thomas R Gillespie
- Department of Environmental Sciences and Program in Population Biology, Ecology and Evolution, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Department of Environmental Health, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Richard J Hall
- Odum School of Ecology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Center for the Ecology of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Department of Infectious Disease, College of Veterinary Medicine, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Dana M Hawley
- Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
| | - Sonia M Hernandez
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Lynn B Martin
- Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, USA
| | - Raina K Plowright
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT, USA
| | - Dara A Satterfield
- Migratory Bird Center, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC 20008, USA
| | - Daniel G Streicker
- Odum School of Ecology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.,Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8QQ, UK.,MRC-University of Glasgow Centre for Virus Research, Glasgow G61 1QH, UK
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Satterfield DA, Maerz JC, Hunter MD, Flockhart DTT, Hobson KA, Norris DR, Streit H, de Roode JC, Altizer S. Migratory monarchs that encounter resident monarchs show life-history differences and higher rates of parasite infection. Ecol Lett 2018; 21:1670-1680. [PMID: 30152196 DOI: 10.1111/ele.13144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2018] [Accepted: 07/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Environmental change induces some wildlife populations to shift from migratory to resident behaviours. Newly formed resident populations could influence the health and behaviour of remaining migrants. We investigated migrant-resident interactions among monarch butterflies and consequences for life history and parasitism. Eastern North American monarchs migrate annually to Mexico, but some now breed year-round on exotic milkweed in the southern US and experience high infection prevalence of protozoan parasites. Using stable isotopes (δ2 H, δ13 C) and cardenolide profiles to estimate natal origins, we show that migrant and resident monarchs overlap during fall and spring migration. Migrants at sites with residents were 13 times more likely to have infections and three times more likely to be reproductive (outside normal breeding season) compared to other migrants. Exotic milkweed might either attract migrants that are already infected or reproductive, or alternatively, induce these states. Increased migrant-resident interactions could affect monarch parasitism, migratory success and long-term conservation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - John C Maerz
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| | - Mark D Hunter
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | - D T Tyler Flockhart
- Departmment of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G2W1, Canada
| | - Keith A Hobson
- Department of Biology, Western University, London, ON, N6A5B7, Canada
| | - D Ryan Norris
- Departmment of Integrative Biology, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, N1G2W1, Canada
| | - Hillary Streit
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, 48109, USA
| | | | - Sonia Altizer
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, 30602, USA
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Satterfield DA, Altizer S, Williams MK, Hall RJ. Environmental Persistence Influences Infection Dynamics for a Butterfly Pathogen. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0169982. [PMID: 28099501 PMCID: PMC5242512 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0169982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Many pathogens, including those infecting insects, are transmitted via dormant stages shed into the environment, where they must persist until encountering a susceptible host. Understanding how abiotic conditions influence environmental persistence and how these factors influence pathogen spread are crucial for predicting patterns of infection risk. Here, we explored the consequences of environmental transmission for infection dynamics of a debilitating protozoan parasite (Ophryocystis elektroscirrha) that infects monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus). We first conducted an experiment to observe the persistence of protozoan spores exposed to natural conditions. Experimental results showed that, contrary to our expectations, pathogen doses maintained high infectivity even after 16 days in the environment, although pathogens did yield infections with lower parasite loads after environmental exposure. Because pathogen longevity exceeded the time span of our experiment, we developed a mechanistic model to better explore environmental persistence for this host-pathogen system. Model analysis showed that, in general, longer spore persistence led to higher infection prevalence and slightly smaller monarch population sizes. The model indicated that typical parasite doses shed onto milkweed plants must remain viable for a minimum of 3 weeks for prevalence to increase during the summer-breeding season, and for 11 weeks or longer to match levels of infection commonly reported from the wild, assuming moderate values for parasite shedding rate. Our findings showed that transmission stages of this butterfly pathogen are long-lived and indicated that this is a necessary condition for the protozoan to persist in local monarch populations. This study provides a modeling framework for future work examining the dynamics of an ecologically important pathogen in an iconic insect.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dara A. Satterfield
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Sonia Altizer
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| | - Mary-Kate Williams
- Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas at Little Rock, Little Rock, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Richard J. Hall
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
- Department of Infectious Diseases, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, United States of America
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Satterfield DA, Villablanca FX, Maerz JC, Altizer S. Migratory monarchs wintering in California experience low infection risk compared to monarchs breeding year-round on non-native milkweed. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:343-52. [PMID: 27252207 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-distance migration can lower infection risk for animal populations by removing infected individuals during strenuous journeys, spatially separating susceptible age classes, or allowing migrants to periodically escape from contaminated habitats. Many seasonal migrations are changing due to human activities including climate change and habitat alteration. Moreover, for some migratory populations, sedentary behaviors are becoming more common as migrants abandon or shorten their journeys in response to supplemental feeding or warming temperatures. Exploring the consequences of reduced movement for host-parasite interactions is needed to predict future responses of animal pathogens to anthropogenic change. Monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) and their specialist protozoan parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE) provide a model system for examining how long-distance migration affects infectious disease processes in a rapidly changing world. Annual monarch migration from eastern North America to Mexico is known to reduce protozoan infection prevalence, and more recent work suggests that monarchs that forego migration to breed year-round on non-native milkweeds in the southeastern and south central Unites States face extremely high risk of infection. Here, we examined the prevalence of OE infection from 2013 to 2016 in western North America, and compared monarchs exhibiting migratory behavior (overwintering annually along the California coast) with those that exhibit year-round breeding. Data from field collections and a joint citizen science program of Monarch Health and Monarch Alert showed that infection frequency was over nine times higher for monarchs sampled in gardens with year-round milkweed as compared to migratory monarchs sampled at overwintering sites. Results here underscore the importance of animal migrations for lowering infection risk and motivate future studies of pathogen transmission in migratory species affected by environmental change.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Francis X Villablanca
- Biological Sciences Department, California Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo, CA 93407, USA
| | - John C Maerz
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Sonia Altizer
- *Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Abstract
Long-distance animal migrations have important consequences for infectious disease dynamics. In some cases, migration lowers pathogen transmission by removing infected individuals during strenuous journeys and allowing animals to periodically escape contaminated habitats. Human activities are now causing some migratory animals to travel shorter distances or form sedentary (non-migratory) populations. We focused on North American monarch butterflies and a specialist protozoan parasite to investigate how the loss of migratory behaviours affects pathogen spread and evolution. Each autumn, monarchs migrate from breeding grounds in the eastern US and Canada to wintering sites in central Mexico. However, some monarchs have become non-migratory and breed year-round on exotic milkweed in the southern US. We used field sampling, citizen science data and experimental inoculations to quantify infection prevalence and parasite virulence among migratory and sedentary populations. Infection prevalence was markedly higher among sedentary monarchs compared with migratory monarchs, indicating that diminished migration increases infection risk. Virulence differed among parasite strains but was similar between migratory and sedentary populations, potentially owing to high gene flow or insufficient time for evolutionary divergence. More broadly, our findings suggest that human activities that alter animal migrations can influence pathogen dynamics, with implications for wildlife conservation and future disease risks.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - John C Maerz
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Sonia Altizer
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Abstract
Recent studies suggest that the energetic demands of long-distance migration might lower the pool of resources available for costly immune defenses. Moreover, migration could amplify the costs of parasitism if animals suffering from parasite-induced damage or depleted energy reserves are less able to migrate long distances. We investigated relationships between long-distance migration, infection, and immunity in wild fall-migrating monarch butterflies Danaus plexippus. Monarchs migrate annually from eastern North America to central Mexico, accumulating lipids essential for migration and winter survival as they travel southward. Monarchs are commonly infected by the debilitating protozoan parasite Ophryocystis elektroscirrha (OE). We collected data on lipid reserves, parasite loads, and two immune measures (hemocyte concentration and phenoloxidase activity) from wild monarchs migrating through north GA (USA) to ask whether (1) parasite infection negatively affects lipid reserves, and (2) greater investment in lipid reserves is associated with lower immune measures. Results showed that monarchs sampled later in the fall migration had lower but not significantly different immune measures and significantly higher lipid reserves than those sampled earlier. Lipid measures correlated negatively but only nearly significantly with one measure of immune defense (phenoloxidase activity) in both healthy and infected monarchs, but did not depend on monarch infection status or parasite load. These results provide weak support for a trade-off between energy reserves and immune defense in migrants, and suggest that previously-demonstrated costs of OE infection for monarch migration are not caused by depleted lipid reserves.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Amy E. Wright
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| | - Sonia Altizer
- Odum School of Ecology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Dolan Thomas J, Hatcher CP, Satterfield DA, Theodore MJ, Bach MC, Linscott KB, Zhao X, Wang X, Mair R, Schmink S, Arnold KE, Stephens DS, Harrison LH, Hollick RA, Andrade AL, Lamaro-Cardoso J, de Lemos APS, Gritzfeld J, Gordon S, Soysal A, Bakir M, Sharma D, Jain S, Satola SW, Messonnier NE, Mayer LW. sodC-based real-time PCR for detection of Neisseria meningitidis. PLoS One 2011; 6:e19361. [PMID: 21573213 PMCID: PMC3088665 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0019361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2010] [Accepted: 04/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Real-time PCR (rt-PCR) is a widely used molecular method for detection of Neisseria meningitidis (Nm). Several rt-PCR assays for Nm target the capsule transport gene, ctrA. However, over 16% of meningococcal carriage isolates lack ctrA, rendering this target gene ineffective at identification of this sub-population of meningococcal isolates. The Cu-Zn superoxide dismutase gene, sodC, is found in Nm but not in other Neisseria species. To better identify Nm, regardless of capsule genotype or expression status, a sodC-based TaqMan rt-PCR assay was developed and validated. Standard curves revealed an average lower limit of detection of 73 genomes per reaction at cycle threshold (C(t)) value of 35, with 100% average reaction efficiency and an average R(2) of 0.9925. 99.7% (624/626) of Nm isolates tested were sodC-positive, with a range of average C(t) values from 13.0 to 29.5. The mean sodC C(t) value of these Nm isolates was 17.6±2.2 (±SD). Of the 626 Nm tested, 178 were nongroupable (NG) ctrA-negative Nm isolates, and 98.9% (176/178) of these were detected by sodC rt-PCR. The assay was 100% specific, with all 244 non-Nm isolates testing negative. Of 157 clinical specimens tested, sodC detected 25/157 Nm or 4 additional specimens compared to ctrA and 24 more than culture. Among 582 carriage specimens, sodC detected Nm in 1 more than ctrA and in 4 more than culture. This sodC rt-PCR assay is a highly sensitive and specific method for detection of Nm, especially in carriage studies where many meningococcal isolates lack capsule genes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Dolan Thomas
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
- * E-mail:
| | - Cynthia P. Hatcher
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - Dara A. Satterfield
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
- Biology Department, Agnes Scott College, Decatur, Georgia, United States
of America
| | - M. Jordan Theodore
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - Michelle C. Bach
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
- Biology Department, Agnes Scott College, Decatur, Georgia, United States
of America
| | - Kristin B. Linscott
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
- Biology Department, Agnes Scott College, Decatur, Georgia, United States
of America
| | - Xin Zhao
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - Xin Wang
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - Raydel Mair
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - Susanna Schmink
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - Kathryn E. Arnold
- Division of Public Health, Georgia Department of Community Health,
Atlanta, Georgia, United States of America
- Georgia Emerging Infections Program, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - David S. Stephens
- Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
- Georgia Emerging Infections Program, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - Lee H. Harrison
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland,
United States of America
| | - Rosemary A. Hollick
- Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland,
United States of America
| | - Ana Lucia Andrade
- Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública,
Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás,
Brazil
| | - Juliana Lamaro-Cardoso
- Instituto de Patologia Tropical e Saúde Pública,
Universidade Federal de Goiás, Goiânia, Goiás,
Brazil
| | | | - Jenna Gritzfeld
- Respiratory Infection, Clinical Group, Liverpool School of Tropical
Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Gordon
- Respiratory Infection, Clinical Group, Liverpool School of Tropical
Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Ahmet Soysal
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Marmara University School of
Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Mustafa Bakir
- Division of Pediatric Infectious Diseases, Marmara University School of
Medicine, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Dolly Sharma
- Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
- Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - Shabnam Jain
- Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
- Children's Healthcare of Atlanta, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - Sarah W. Satola
- Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
- Georgia Emerging Infections Program, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
- Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - Nancy E. Messonnier
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| | - Leonard W. Mayer
- Meningitis and Vaccine Preventable Diseases Branch, Division of Bacterial
Diseases, National Center for Immunization and Respiratory Diseases, Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, United States of
America
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
Employing 90 delinquent male youths as subjects, the current investigation explores the relationship between the amount of personal space requested, ethnic background, and type of criminal offense. As predicted, the amount of personal space requested increases as a function of ethnic dissimilarity between the subject and the approachet. Of particular interest is the finding that the amount of personal space requested is directly related to the type of criminal offense committed by the subject. Subjects who commit crimes against other people uniformly request more personal space than subjects who commit crimes against property, who, in turn, request more personal space than subjects who commit victimless crimes. This was found across all ethnic groups and within each ethnic group analyzed separately.
Collapse
|